THE DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY 
IN EUROPE 



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THE DAWN OF 

AMERICAN HISTORY 

I N EUROPE 



BY 

WILLIAM LEWIS NIDA, Ph.B. 

SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, RIVER FOREST, ILLINOIS 

AUTHOR OF "THE STORY OF ILLINOIS AND ITS PEOPLE," 
AND " AB, THE CAVE MAN " 



Wcto gork 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1912 

^It rights reserved 



■/V'6(i 



Copyright, igiz, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY 



Set up and electrotyped. Published October, 1912. 



Nortoool) JPksb 

J. S Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



©CI.A3281o7 
1. 



PREFACE 

Eight years ago the author began giving to the pupils 
under his supervision the benefit of a European histori- 
cal background before introducing them to their texts 
in American History. That the wider historical horizon 
greatly strengthened their later grasp of the history of our 
own country has been both evident and gratifying. 

The available texts having been found unsatisfactory 
in many ways, the author resolved to try his hand, and 
had covered a part of the ground before the Report of the 
Committee of Eight of the American Historical Associa- 
tion was brought to his attention. Slight alterations in 
his plans have made them conform in general to the ex- 
cellent recommendations of that Committee. 

Since no judgment of a text is as searching and final 
as that formed from actual use in the classroom, neither 
labor nor expense has been spared in making this test. 
The pages of the following work were first stenciled on 
the typewriter, and with much labor more than a hundred 
copies of each page were run off on the duplicator. These 
were collected in books with notebook covers and placed 
in the hands of about a hundred sixth-grade pupils in our 
own schools and in selected classes of neighboring Chicago 
suburbs. The author not only taught a class, but closely 
observed the use of his chapters in the hands of a number 
of superior history teachers. This experience with the 
children coupled with the invaluable suggestions of those 



/ 



vi PREFACE 

teachers, made possible great improvement in the second 
writing of the manuscript. 

Only those who have undertaken to squeeze the history 
of twenty centuries into one short text, can comprehend 
fully the difficulties encountered. Many interesting sub- 
jects had to be eliminated in order that space might be 
afforded to make the remaining narrative live and dramatic. 

The aim has been, above all things, to tell the story in 
such a way that the pupil may readily see how one event 
led to another, for even very young children enjoy the 
tracing of cause and effect when the subject matter is put 
before them in a proper manner. The problems and diffi- 
culties encountered and overcome by mankind in its 
upward progress have been kept in the foreground, stimu- 
lating the mind of the child to thought and judgment, 
and forcing into the background the mere memory facts. 

The contents of this volume is largely the story of the 
achievements of the Teutonic peoples as they gathered up 
and wove together the chief threads of modern civilization. 
To the gifts of Greece and Rome and the Christian church, 
the Teutons added their own supreme contributions; and 
through the dark ages they gradually assimilated these 
elements, thereby raising themselves to the position of 
leadership in Europe. It was mainly the daughter nations 
of these Teutonic peoples that planted European civiliza- 
tion upon American soil. This explanation is offered for 
introducing the children at once to the old Teutons and 
for treating the Greeks and Romans in later chapters. 

The author desires to express his deep gratitude to those 
splendid teachers who have tried out the text in their 
classes. The questions appended to the chapters are 
largely those of Miss Alice Louise Davis, an unusual 
teacher of history, as she used the chapters from day to 



PREFACE vii 

day with her pupils in the River Forest schools. To the 
author's wife is due the credit of pohshing off many rough 
edges and of aiding in that irksome task of putting the 
manuscript in form for pubUcation. 

Our hearty thanks are tendered the following publishers : 
Messrs. Scott, Foresman & Co. for permission to use the 
illustrations from Harding's ' Middle Ages " that appear 
on pages 2, 8, 13, 157, and 273; Messrs. Ginn & Co. for 
the illustration on page 26, taken from Atkinson's " Euro- 
pean Beginnings of American History " ; Messrs. Allyn & 
Bacon for the map on page 23, which is taken from West's 
'' Ancient History " ; and Messrs. D. C. Heath & Co. for 
the cuts on pages 29, 225, and 265, which are taken from 
Bourne & Benton's " Introductory American History." 

WILLIAM LEWIS NIDA. 

I 

River Forest, September, 1912. 



CONTENTS 



I. Our German Forefathers . 

II. Rome conquering the World 

III. How THE Romans Lived 

IV. Barbarians destroying the Empire 
V. The Teutons at School in the Empire 

VI. The Monasteries .... 

VII. England and the Saxons 

VIII. Alfred the Great and the Danes 

IX. The Beginning of France . 

X. Feudalism 

XI. Castle Life 

XII. How the People Lived 

XIII. Commerce in the Dark Ages 

XIV. Mohammed and the Moors . 
XV. The Crusades .... 

XVI. Results of the Crusades 

XVII. The Growth of France 

XVIII. The Coming of the Northmen . 

XIX. Winning English Liberty 

XX. The Rise of Spain 

XXI. Marco Polo and the East . 

XXII. Prince Henry and the Portuguese 

XXIII. Columbus and the New World . 

XXIV. Race to the Indies 
XXV. The Spaniards in America . 

XXVI. Rise of the Protestants 



PAGE 

I 
21 

39 
57 
76 

87 
98 
1x6 
134 
139 
147 
163 

174 
188 
201 
223 
232 

239 
246 

253 
264 
271 
279 
297 
306 

318 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXIL 



The Revolt of the Netherlands 

The Fall of Spain 

The French in America 

The Dutch at New Amsterdam 

English Settlement of America 

Conclusion 



329 
340 
348 
356 
360 
365 



MAPS 

FULL-PAGE ^APS 

• PAGE 

Roman Empire {Colored) .... between 28 and 29 ' 

Alfred's England {Colored) facing 129 

Palestine, Showing the Routes of the Crusaders . . .215' 

Spain in the Days of Isabella {Colored) . . . facing 260 

The First Voyage Around the World 304 

French Explorations ........ 354'- 

European Claims in North America at the Time of the Found- 
ing of the Last English Colony {Colored) . . facing 365 

MAPS IN TEXT 

Roman Dominion and Dependencies ..... 23 

Map of Africa 277 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Departure of Columbus on His Western Voyage 

A Village of the Teutons . 

Roman Soldiers Marching 

Emperor Augustus . 

German Homes 

Teutons Crossing the Rhine 

Arms of the Teutons 

German Bodyguard 

A Part of the City of Rome (Restored) 

Hannibal Crossing the Rhone . 

Temples of the Gods at Athens (Restored) 

Caesar, the Greatest of the Romans 

A Portion of the Roman Wall 

Cross-section of a Roman Road 

A Roman Bridge 

Triumphal Procession in the Sacred Way, Rome 

Roman Fleet in the Harbor 

Arch of Constantine 

The Fates 

Victory .... 

A Roman Mosaic Pavement 

A Roman Wall Painting . 

Reading a Roman Book . 

An Old Roman School 

Ruins of the Aqueducts, Rome 

Interior of the Coliseum . 

In the Arena . 

A Roman Dining Room . 

The Chariot Race . 

Irene and Plutus 

Constantinople and the Bosporus 



Frontispiece 

PAGE 
2 

4 

6 

8 

13 

IS 

17 

22 

25 
26 
27 
29 
30 

33 
35 
36 
39 
40 
40 

41 
42 

43 
45 
47 
49 
52 
55 
58 
59 



XIV 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



A Roman Goddess ..... 

Alaric in Athens ..... 

Victory of Samothrace .... 

The Tomb of Emperor Hadrian at Rome 

Temple of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, Rome 

Ruins of the Roman Forum 

The New Appian Way 

St. Peter's, Rome . 

St. Benedict .... 

Cloister of the Monastery 

Plan of an Abbey . 

A Monk at Work . 

Melrose Abbey 

Saxon Ships .... 

The Saxon Tool and Weapon . 

The Residence of a Saxon Nobleman 

The Viking Ships . 

The Fiord in Norway 

Ancient Boat found in Denmark 

The Wise Men of Alfred's Time 

King Alfred .... 

Weapons of the Danes 

A Viking Ship and an Ocean Liner 

Charlemagne .... 

An Old Castle 

Tickell Castle .... 

The Oath of Fealty to the Young Lord 

Plan of a Castle 

The Drawbridge 

The Vigil .... 

A Knight in Armor 

Castle of Falaise ... 

A Sport of the Day 

A Tournament 

Conferring Knighthood on the Field 

Manor House and Village 

Manor House .... 

Costumes of That Day . 



(Restored) 



of B 



ttle 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



XV 



PAGE 

Conway Castle 170 


A Ship of the Middle Ages 


. 




17s 


An Old Street in Worcester 








. 


178 


The Merchants' Hall at Bruges 










182 


Old English Town Hall . 










184 


Camels of the Desert 












. 189 


A Barren Desert 












190 


Jerusalem as it Appears To-day 












192 


The Court of Lions, Alhambra 












194 


Arabian Horses 












197 


Minaret of Mosque of the Sultan Kalaun, Cairo 






198 


Pilgrims Entering Bethlehem on Christmas Day 






202 


Peter the Hermit Preaching to the Crusaders . 






204 


A Knight of the Cross .... 








206 


Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives 










219 


Richard I in Palestine 










220 


The Sacking of Jerusalem 












221 


Ancient Ships 












224 


Mariner's Compass 












225 


A Dutch Windmill 


, 










228 


Norman Soldiers 












240 


Westminster Abbey 












249 


A Farmhouse formerly a Monastery 












255 


Early Cannon 










' 


261 


Venetian Ships 


• 










265 


Marco Polo 












266 


Finding the Latitude 












273 


Henry the Navigator 












275 


Christopher Columbus 












279 


Toscanelli ..... 












281 


Columbus at the Court of Spain 












28s 


Columbus' Fleet 












288 


The Landing of Columbus 












292 


Vasco da Gama and the Zamorin 












299 


Magellan . , . . 












300 


Cortez 












307 


Balboa Sighting the Pacific 












311 


De Soto's Discovery of the Mississip 


>pi 










315 



xvi ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

St. Augustine, Florida 317 

The Vatican 319 

Petrarch 321 

Gutenberg's Press 324 

Martin Luther 325 

PhUip II of Spain 329 

Duke of Alva 331 

William the Silent . . . 333 

Dikes of Holland 336 

Queen Elizabeth 341 

The Meeting of the English Ships with the Spanish Armada . 343 

The Sovereign of the Seas , . 344 

Cartier 349 

Champlain 351 

Quebec in the Early Days 351 

Champlain Defeating the Iroquois 353 

Half Moon on the Hudson 357 

The Dutch in New Amsterdam 358 

Sir Walter Raleigh 361 

The Lost Colony 362 

John Smith 363 

The Ruins of Jamestown . 364 



THE DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY 
IN EUROPE 



THE DAWN OF AMERICAN 
HISTORY IN EUROPE 

CHAPTER I 
OUR GERMAN FOREFATHERS 

Roving Barbarians. — Many hundred years ago, in those 
northern countries of Europe that we know as Norway, 
Sweden, and Germany, Hved a race of rude barbarians. 
For a long time, no one knows how many centuries, these 
hardy people had been roaming about over Europe in tribes, 
carrying their families in rough oxcarts and driving their 
herds of cattle and swine. The men were bold and power- 
ful, and they loved nothing so much as a battle. Most 
of their time was spent in fighting and in plundering other 
tribes. 

Our Forefathers. — But we must think kindly of these 
fierce barbarians, for they were relatives of many of us — our 
far-away forefathers. Not only were they our ancestors, 
but they were also the ancestors of Englishmen, of the 
Dutch, the Swedes and Norwegians, and of the modern 
Germans. In fact, there is not a nation in all western 
Europe to-day that does not boast of having some bar- 
barian blood in the veins of its people. 

If these old Teutons, for such we call them, were living 
to-day, how proud they would be to see their children's 
children spreading over the earth and ruling in all western 



2 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Europe, in America, Australia, and South Africa! They 
would be proud of us, perhaps, but should we be proud of 
them? How should you like to entertain one of them in 
your home? 

Their Early History. — Twenty centuries ago, before 
Christ was born, these barbarian forefathers of ours were 



A Village of the Teutons. 

somewhat like the American Indians as Columbus first 
found them. Being unable to read or write, they knew 
nothing at all of their own early history. Where they 
came from in the first place we do not know. But for 
long ages they lived in Europe, and scholars have learned 
a great deal about them from relics found in caves, sand- 
drifts, ?.nd graveyards. The most that we know of these 
early Germans, however, we have learned from the Ro- 
mans of those days, who were their neighbors on the south 
and who waged many wars with them. 

The Romans. — It was a custom of the Romans when 



OUR GERMAN FOREFATHERS 3 

they conquered a nation to make every man pass under a 
yoke formed of two spears stuck in the ground and slanted 
together at the top. To go under the yoke meant to obey 
Rome ever after, just as an ox obeys its driver. Rome had 
conquered nearly all the other great nations of the world 




Roman Soldiers Marching. 

and had forced them to obey her, but for two hundred and 
fifty years she had tried in vain to conquer the German 
barbarians. 

A Bitter Lesson. — At last the great Roman emperor, 
Augustus, resolved to send his armies into Germany and 
to force the Teutons under the yoke of Rome. So he sent 
his famous general, Varus, with Rome's finest legions against 
the fierce Teutons. Varus crossed the Rhine River, which 
was the boundary, and fought his way to the very heart 
of the barbarian forests. But he never returned. His 
splendid army of twenty thousand men was trapped and 



DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



slain almost to a man. The fierce Germans nailed some of 
the Roman officers to crosses ; others they buried alive ; and 
still others were turned over to the priests to be bled to 
death on the altar as a sacrifice to their heathen gods. 
When the aged Augustus heard the sad news, he cried out 
again and again in bitter sorrow, " O Varus, Varus! give 
me back my legions." 

Many times after this, Rome undertook to master the 

proud Teutons. But every 
time her legions advanced 
far into the German father- 
land, they were either sur- 
rounded and cut to pieces 
amid the dark, pathless for- 
ests, or they were driven 
back pell-mell across the 
river boundary, glad to es- 
cape with their lives. 

Explaining Defeat. — The 
Teutons were indeed mighty 
warriors. So rugged were 
they that they could bear 
the coldest winter weather 
with little clothing, they 
could endure hunger and 
great hardships without 
flinching, and they were 
braver than any other warriors of those days. The Ro- 
mans declared that they feared no other nation on earth 
except these fierce Teutons. In order to explain their de- 
feat, the Romans imagined that the Germans were more 
than men ; they were indeed a race of real giants with fierce, 
blue eyes and red hair. One Roman writer gravely said 




Emperor Augustus. 



OUR GERMAN FOREFATHERS 5 

that the Germans near the Baltic Sea had hoofs hke horses 
instead of human feet, and ears large enough to cover their 
bodies. 

How Far the Teutons had Advanced. — While the 
Teutons knew nothing of reading and writing, still they 
were not savages. They had taken many important steps 
toward civilization that were unknown to the cave men. 
They knew, of course, how to make fire and how to catch 
fish for food. They had invented the spear pointed with 
flint, and the bow and arrow ; they made stone and bone 
tools. Some wise ancestor had learned how to weave bas- 
kets of cane and splint, and somebody had taught them 
how to weave cloth from grass and other fiber. They 
tanned leather, and made pottery of clay. They tamed 
all the domestic animals in use to-day — the horse, cow, 
sheep, pig, and goat. They raised patches of all the com- 
mon field plants, such as wheat, oats, rye, and barley — all 
except Indian corn. What was still more important, they 
had found out how to smelt iron ore. How they came by 
all this knowledge nobody knows. 

How They Obtained Food. — These old Germans ob- 
tained food partly by hunting and fishing, partly from forest 
fruits and berries, and partly from scanty crops of field 
grains. But Caesar, who spent many years fighting in 
their wild country, tells us that their main food supply was 
obtained from great herds of cattle and hogs. Milk, butter, 
cheese, and meat, we know, make the best of food, but of 
these the barbarians had far from enough. They knew well 
how to preserve meat by smoking it. So excellent were 
their smoked hams that they were known and prized even 
in far-away Rome. 

The Struggle for Food. — From morning until night the 
barbarians were busy keeping hunger from the door. 



6 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

The women and slaves were caring for the herds of cattle 
and tilling the soil with rude, wooden tools. The men were, 
meanwhile, scouring the woodlands for game. When the 
population became crowded and the game grew scarce, or 
when disease killed off their cattle, the people were com- 
pelled either to migrate to a better region, plunder some 
neighbor, or starve. So we cannot blame them for fighting 
and plundering. With so much practice they became fierce 
and powerful warriors. 




tlERMAN Homes. 



Barbarian Dress. — The clothing of these people was 
chiefly made of the skins of animals, but they also wove a 
coarse cloth from grass and other fiber, and often colored 
this purple or red. This was worn by the women. Those 
nations that lived farther north clothed themselves in furs. 

Village Life. — These barbarians had no cities, but lived 
in httle villages near a stream or a wood. Their rude 
dwelhngs were not built of stone or brick. They were low 
huts, circular in form, made of poles and thatched with 



OUR GERMAN FOREFATHERS 7 

straw, with holes in the tops to allow the smoke to go out. 
In these they lived, with little furniture, much as did the 
American Indians in their wigwams. The stable and cow- 
shed were often under the same roof with the cabin. Their 
scattered huts formed groups that we might call villages. 
But we must not picture them as rows of houses along both 
sides of a street. They faced all ways, and there was a net- 
work of paths among them. Some of these villages were, 
perhaps, in clearings or open places, and others in the un- 
broken forests, where often the inmates of one hut could 
scarcely see the home of their nearest neighbors. 

How They Divided Their Land. — Each household had 
a share of the cleared land and usually another section of 
woodland near by, where they fed their herds of cattle and 
swine. Then farther away was the large, rough district of 
common pasture or woodland, not claimed by anybody, 
where the cattle of all roamed for browsing and pasture, 
and the hogs for acorns and beechnuts. 

The Boundaries. — Still farther away was a tract of 
woodland where they hunted wild game. This whole region 
they called the Mark. As each village had about it a wide 
stretch of vacant land, chiefly woods, so had each nation or 
tribe, in a wider sense, a great tract of country separating 
it from neighboring nations or tribes. The greater na- 
tions boasted of tliis wide, unoccupied land about them, 
sometimes eighty or a hundred miles wide, as proof of their 
bravery, for it showed that other nations were glad to keep 
their distance. 

Iron was Precious. — Iron was very scarce among the 
Teutons, so it was highly prized. What little they had was 
probably smelted in rude hillside furnaces, or brought to 
them by Roman traders. So valuable was iron that it 
would surely have been used for money, if the Germans had 



8 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

known the use of money. Whatever iron they could get 
they used in making weapons. They could not afford to 
use it even to make their farm tools. Without money and 
with little iron, no nation could advance very rapidly to- 
ward civilized Ufe, because it could not carry on farming to 
any extent, or manufacturing, or trading. 

What Their Riches were. — The wealth of the barbarians 
consisted of monstrous herds of cattle and swine. Money 




Teutons Crossing the Rhine. 



was unknown save a few Roman coins along the borders 
of the empire. They merely bartered, or exchanged ar- 
ticles in trade. A clay vessel was as precious in their eyes as 
a solid silver vase. Men did not own land, partly, perhaps, 
because they had to keep moving about to find pasturage for 
their flocks and herds. Land probably kept passing from 
tribe to tribe, for there was continual fighting. All the land 
of a tribe therefore belonged to the tribe as a whole, for the 
arms of the tribe were always needed to defend and hold it. 
Easy to Migrate. — Owning no land, it was easy for 
families to migrate and carry all their property with them. 



OUR GERMAN FOREFATHERS 9 

They followed river valleys mainly, because of the need of 
water and pasturage for their cattle. But they were not 
on the march all the time. When they found some favored 
region where the soil was fertile, the pasture good, and the 
surrounding woods plentifully stocked with game, they 
remained there for years, or until some stronger tribe drove 
them out. 

Plowland Changed Hands Annually. — Small patches 
of land were cultivated, mainly by the women, the old 
men, and the slaves ; enough grain was raised to piece out 
their scanty food supply through the winter. The plow- 
land was divided anew every year, so no family was sure of 
having the same patch of ground for two successive years. 
This was a bad plan, because no one cared to improve his 
land by taking especially good care of it, since this would 
merely benefit some one else. The result was that the soil 
was abused and was soon worn out. It had to lie unused 
for a few years to regain strength. For this reason the 
barbarians divided their cleared land into three tracts : one 
was used for pasture, one for raising crops, and one was 
allowed to rest. Orchards and meadow lands were un- 
known. 

No Chance for the Clever Farmer. — Not only must each 
farmer take whatever patch of ground was assigned to him, 
but he was told what crops he might raise and when and 
how he must plant the seed. This left no chance for the 
more clever farmer to improve upon his neighbors. Since 
all tilling was left to women and slaves with rude tools, no 
progress whatever was made in agriculture. 

German Love of Liberty. — These early Germans loved 
liberty. An arbitrary king they would not endure. They 
were willing to obey only those laws that they had a voice 
in making. If they became dissatisfied at home, they could 



lo DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

easily migrate with their herds and families and set up a 
government to their liking. For two thousand years their 
children have shown the same love of liberty. Every few 
years we now hear of some daughter nation that has put 
aside her king and set up a republic like ours. 

How They were Governed. — The Teutons had a simple 
form of government. As soon as a youth reached the age 
of manhood, he was introduced to the village meeting of 
his countrymen. Here he was solemnly presented with a 
wooden shield and a spear, and made full member of the 
tribe. The village meeting, which was called together sev- 
eral times a year under some sacred oak, made all the laws. 
It punished lawbreakers, elected the magistrate, and settled 
the great questions of peace and war by shouts or a loud 
clashing of shields. 

Magistrates Could Only Advise. — Like Indian chiefs, the 
barbarian magistrates might urge the people and try to 
persuade them to do certain things, but the final decision was 
always left to the warriors themselves. So they often 
voted for foolish and wicked measures because it suited their 
present fierce tempers. When their magistrates urged 
them to be careful lest they suffer from their rash acts, the 
warriors shouted " No! " But when one proposed to take 
vengeance upon an enemy by some act of danger and glory, 
there was a loud clashing of spears and shields, by which the 
warriors meant " Yes." 

How the Women were Treated. — The German men 
bought their wives like slaves, but they treated their women 
much better than did the Greeks or even the Romans. In 
their great invasions into Roman territory, the camps of 
the barbarians were filled with a multitude of women, who 
remained cool and firm amidst the sound of battle and the 
wounds of their sons and husbands. When the German 



OUR GERMAN FOREFATHERS ii 

warriors were put to rout, their women still fought on to 
defend their camp and baggage. They dreaded death 
much less than slavery among the Romans. If the day was 
hopelessly lost, many of these brave women did not hesi- 
tate to take their own lives by hanging themselves on the 
horns of the oxen rather than fall into the hands of the 
enemy. 

Their Strange Religion. — The wild Germans had strange 
ideas of religion. They worshiped the sun, the moon, 
fire, and the earth. They believed, too, in unseen gods, to 
whom they often sacrificed human beings. They built no 
temples or churches because they were unskilled in archi- 
tecture and had no thought of trying to make anything 
beautiful. The dark and ancient groves were their only 
temples of worship. Their idols were rough and shapeless. 
Rude and unlearned priests worked with cunning magic 
or sly trickery upon their simple minds. 

The Sacred Grove. — Somewhere between the Elbe and 
the Oder stood the most sacred grove of all Germany. Here 
the Germans believed the great god of all the Teutons had 
been born — Odin, the god of war. To him alone of all the 
German gods human sacrifices were offered. And they were 
offered in this most sacred grove. It was so holy a place 
that none might enter it but with a chain around his neck, 
to show his obedience to Odin. If a man fell down in the 
wood, he might not rise again ; he must crawl out on his 
hands and knees. The Germans also worshiped Thor, 
the god of storms and tempests, who caused thunder by 
hurling his hammer through the heavens, and showed his 
anger by blasting the mountain trees with lightning. 

The Chief Goddess. — The goddess Nerthus, or Mother 
Earth, whom the Germans worshiped, was thought to 
dwell upon an island of the Baltic Sea. Every year she 



12 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

was brought out of this secret place and ferried over to the 
mainland, but no one save her priest was allowed to look 
upon her. In a covered car, drawn by white oxen, she 
passed through the lands of all the tribes ; and the ignorant 
beheved all that the priest told them of their unseen god- 
dess. During this time the sound of war was hushed, 
quarrels and arms were laid aside, and the restless Germans 
had an opportunity of tasting the blessings of peace and 
good will. 

Priests Encouraged Wicked Deeds. — Rehgion was not 
used to instill into the savage hearts of these people the ideals 
of love and peace, but rather to stir up their fierce and ugly 
passions. The priests often urged them on to daring and 
wicked deeds. They had sacred banners, on which ap- 
peared the heads of wild beasts. In battle these were placed 
in front of the warriors, who vowed that they would defeat 
their enemies and turn them over to the angry gods of war 
and thunder. 

Cowardice was the unpardonable sin. The wretch who 
lost his shield was banished from the religious and civil 
meetings of his countrymen. All agreed that a life spent 
in arms and a glorious death in battle were especially pleas- 
ing to their god Odin, and that in this direction lay the 
surest path to a happy hereafter. 

Heaven. — The Germans believed that, after death, all 
warriors who had fallen while bravely fighting were wel- 
comed by Odin to his divine halls. Here the heroes ate, 
drank, and fought all day long, only to begin anew on the 
morrow. 

The Warriors in Peace. — The warrior's business, like 
that of the Indian brave, was to hunt and to fight. All 
kinds of manual labor were beneath his dignity, save one. 
The trade of the blacksmith was held in high honor, for it 



OUR GERMAN FOREFATHERS 



13 



was he who made the battle-axes, spears, and other weapons. 
After a successful hunt or plundering raid, the lazy warriors 
alternately slept and gorged themselves while the food 
lasted. They idled away their days and nights in gambling 
and drunkenness. Their liq- 
uor was a strong beer made 
from wheat or barley. 
Friends and relatives were 
often slain in their drunken 
quarrels. So reckless were 
they in betting that they 
would stake even their Kberty 
on a game. If they lost, they 
gave themselves up to be sold 
as slaves. 

Germans Rejoiced in Bat- 
tle. — After a time these rest- 
less warriors became tired of 
such dull days of peace, or 
perhaps food became scarce. 
Then war and pillage were 
resolved upon. Nothing 
suited their fiery tempers so 
well as fighting. They rejoiced at the call to battle, for they 
thought it unbecoming in brave warriors to labor or to 
trade for food that they might easily take by force. The 
provinces of the Roman empire, with their orchards and 
fields of grain, seemed to invite plunder. Roman lands 
were especially tempting, because in the warmer climate of 
Italy choice grapes were raised and made into wine, a 
Roman liquor of which our forefathers were very fond. The 
first Latin word that they learned from the Roman traders 
was "wine." 




Arms of the Teutons. 



14 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

The Great Chiefs. — The young men joined themselves 
by oath to some famous chief whom they followed in war. 
They strove to outshine one another in battle, so as to obtain 
a high place in the esteem of their leader. Each chief tried 
to join to himself the greatest number of brave followers, 
for in this way only could he be honored in peace and power- 
ful in war. So the young men flocked by tens, hundreds, or 
even thousands to the most renowned chiefs, and foreign 
nations courted their friendship eagerly. Even the Romans 
were glad to buy their friendship by bestowing upon them 
gifts or titles of honor such as " Citizen " or " Friend of 
the Romans." 

Men Loyal to Their Chief. — In battle it was thought 
shameful for a chief not to equal his followers in bravery, 
while for them to remain ahve after their cliief had fallen 
was an everlasting disgrace. It was their sacred duty to 
protect him and to add to his glory by their own brilliant 
deeds. The only reward they claimed from their chief was 
a war horse or a bloody spear. But it was their privilege 
also to sit at his table and to enjoy the fruits of plunder. 

Fighting Their Business. — Whenever their own country 
was at peace and their days seemed dull, the noblest chiefs 
led their followers to distant nations to win glory by fighting 
on one side or the other ; it mattered little which side. 
The fame of the chief often brought victory to the party 
he joined with his band. Thousands of Germans were 
often brought into the Roman army to fight for pay against 
their own countrymen. ' 

Music. — The Germans enjoyed a sort of rude music. 
In the hour of battle or at the feast of victory, singing bards 
excited the men by war songs celebrating the heroes of 
ancient days. They sang also of the glory of their living 
warriors, who loved to hear their own praise. 



OUR GERMAN FOREFATHERS 



IS 



Their Weapons. — These barbarians had little iron to use 
for weapons. They were not acquainted with swords or 
long lances. They had long spears headed with a sharp but 
narrow iron point, which they either hurled from a distance 
or used in hand-to-hand fighting. With this spear and a 
shield of wood a horseman was contented. The foot sol- 
diers, armed with bows and arrows, threw darts with wonder- 




German Bodyguard. 



ful power. Their dress in battle, when they wore any, was 
nothing more than a loose garment of skin, which left the 
arms and legs free. Their wooden shields were adorned 
with a variety of colors. Helmets were worn only by a 
few chieftains. 

Their Fierce Bravery. — With their fierce blue eyes, 
tangled red hair, and faces made hideous with a reddish oil, 
these giant Teuton warriors struck terror to the hearts of 
the Romans. They rushed to battle with leveled spears, 
with furious shouts, and in great disorder. But in spite of 
rude arms and broken ranks, they often won victories over 
the well-armed Romans, through sheer native bravery. No 



1 6 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

wonder the Romans thought that the barbarians fought like 
very demons. When the warriors were beaten, their women 
fought on ; and lastly their very dogs kept up the fight to 
defend the bodies of their masters. 

The First and Last Charge. — The first charge of the 
German warriors was speedy and furious. But if they 
failed to break through the enemy's lines, they were easily 
driven back. And as they did not know how to rally their 
troops, a retreat usually meant total defeat and destruction. 
There was no such thing as honorable surrender. The 
victorious army slew as many as thdr battle-axes could 
overtake. 

Commerce in Days of Peace. — But the barbarians and 
Romans were not fighting all the time. There were days 
of peace when a growing trade took place between them, 
across the wall and river boundary. The Germans had 
learned to enjoy many of the good things of the Romans, 
such as wine, ornaments, arms, spices, and finer clothing. 
Traders scattered Roman coins among the neighboring 
Germans in trade, bringing back furs, smoked meats, saus- 
ages, and a certain reddish oil which Roman ladies used on 
their faces to make themselves beautiful. Antlers, goose 
feathers, and human hair were also carried to Rome. Per- 
haps horses and cattle, too, were brought across the border 
into the empire. 

Germans Become Christians. — The Christian religion, 
which had spread over the whole Roman empire, was also 
carried across the river line ; and the Germans who lived 
nearest the border received the gentle message of the Gos- 
pel and became, after a fashion, Christians. The more 
distant tribes, however, remained heathen for centuries. 

Hear of the Cowardly Romans. — The traders also 
carried to the Germans stories of Rome, of the fertile lands, 



OUR GERMAN FOREFATHERS 



17 




1 8 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

of boundless wealth, and of the Romans who had grown too 
lazy and cowardly to fight any more in defense of all these 
treasures. Some of the warriors, who hired themselves to 
the Romans to fight, saw the wonderful cities of the Roman 
empire and returned to tell their heathen brothers about 
what they had seen and heard. Rome, they said, was a 
grand city whose streets were all paved with gold ; and no 
one had anything to do there but to sit and bathe free of 
charge and go to the theater to see thousands of gladiators 
fight at once, and drink the wondrous Hquor that they call 
wine. If it were not for the walls around the city, they 
said, the Germans might easily get all the rich plunder of 
this splendid city, for one need not fear the cowardly Ro- 
mans any more than a flock of sheep. So you will see that 
everything was tending to draw the thoughts and hopes of 
our German forefathers to the south. 

Country Too Crowded — Move or Starve. — Then there 
were two forces that were steadily pushing the Germans 
southward. One of these was the growing number of 
people. " So long as a nation lives mainly by hunting and 
grazing it needs an immense quantity of land. If it does 
not have this, the game will get scarce, the rivers will be 
fished out, and the people must move or starve." The 
barbarians at this time were increasing rapidly in numbers, 
and their lands were not large enough to support them. 
" One of two things they must do, either clear and cultivate 
their own rough country, or take the lands that the industry 
of the Romans had made ready for them. A race of 
fresh, vigorous lighting men could not hesitate ; they would 
take their neighbor's land." Then, too, the Germans were 
being pushed southward by immense tribes of still ruder 
barbarians — the Slavs and Huns who were eager to seize 
upon the lands of the Germans. 



OUR GERMAN FOREFATHERS 19 

The Good Qualities of the Germans. — There are two 
important things that we must remember about these bar- 
barian forefathers of ours of two thousand years ago. The 
first thing is that while they were nearly as barbarous as the 
American Indian, there was one great difference between 
them. The German had great capacity to learn, the In- 
dian had not. The Indian, upon first contact with civi- 
lized man, learned of him only his vices. " The German 
meeting the Roman, learned of him how to govern, how to 
read and write, to cultivate the ground, to build cities and 
hve in them, to put aside his old religion and to take that 
of the conquered Roman." He did not learn all this in a 
year or in a century. We shall see that it took hundreds 
of years for the Germans to educate themselves to the level 
of the Romans. 

The Greatest Race in History. — In this ability to learn 
and to fit itself into new surroundings, the Teutonic race is 
■ the most wonderful race in the history of the world. This 
is the secret of the great things it has done for mankind in 
all hnes of improvement — in learning and free education, in 
art and literature, in rehgious freedom and self-government, 
in labor-saving inventions, in discovering the laws of nature 
and using them to do the work of man. In all these things 
the children of the Teutons have for centuries taken the 
lead. 

QUESTIONS 

I. Why are we interested in the Teutonic tribes ? 2. How did we 
find out about them ? 3. Why do we know so little of their history ? 
4. How were they like our Indians ? 5. Where did they come from ? 
6. Who were the Romans? 7. Why did the Romans tell us of the 
Germans ? 8. Locate the Rhine and the Danube, g. What emperor 
planned a great attack? 10. Whom did he send? 11. What were 
legions? 12. What was the outcome of this advance? 13. What 



20 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

were the early Germans noted for ? 14. Give the Roman description 
of Germans. 15. What progress had they made ? 16. Why was not 
this progress greater? 17. What food did the Teutons eat? 
18. What work did they do ? 19. How did they dress ? 20. Describe 
their villages. 21. How were their lands divided ? 22. Who owned 
the land? 23. What was a mark ? 24. How were they governed ? 
25. Describe their trade. 26. Account for their roving. 27. De- 
scribe their farming. 28. Compare their farming with our modern 
farming. 29. What were their amusements and what do they tell of 
the people ? 30. What was woman's part in the Teutonic life ? 
31. Discuss their religious ideas, their churches and gods. 32. What 
influence had their religion upon their lives? t,^. Were the Teutons 
really bad ? 34. Why, or why not ? 

Armies — 35. Of what importance was the chief ? 36., Who were 
his followers? 37. How were they paid for fighting? 38. What 
was the attitude of the people toward lighting? 39. What part in 
the fight did the bards take ? 40. What weapons were used ? 
41. How were the fighters dressed ? 42. Describe an attack. 

Trade OF THE Teutons — 43. What was traded ? 44. Where did 
they trade? 45. What were the results of this trade? 46. What 
do you think was the most important result? 47. What reports of 
this trade did the Romans give ? 



CHAPTER II 
ROME CONQUERING THE WORLD 

The City of Seven Hills. — Rome, the City of Seven Hills, 
was once mistress of the world. The city was built upon 
low hills along the Tiber River, fifteen miles from the sea. 
In the early days the Romans ruled over only a small dis- 
trict along the Tiber, but they were great warriors. Not 
only was each soldier very brave, but the regiments, which 
they called legions, were well trained and armed with good 
weapons. They obeyed all commands instantly, and as in 
a trained football team, each man played his own separate 
part. First, they made their home city safe by building 
huge walls around it. Then they set about to subdue all 
the surrounding tribes. It was not long before Rome -was 
ruler of the entire peninsula of Italy. 

Rome Matches Swords with Carthage. — So proud were 
the Romans of their valor that they were easily provoked 
to battle. Thus they were soon in the midst of long wars 
with the ancient city of Carthage, a very powerful city on 
the northern coast of Africa. Carthage was a rich and 
prosperous state whose trading ships carried on an extensive 
commerce upon the Mediterranean in those days. The city 
had many great ships of war, and her sailors were at home 
upon the sea. The Romans had no ships whatever, and 
they did not even know how to build a vessel of any kind. 
How, then, could the Romans hope to fight the men of Car- 
thage? A fortunate thing happened to the Romans about 
this time, for a great storm wrecked a Carthaginian warship, 



2 2 DAWN OF AMERICAN fflSTORY IN EUROPE 



and the waves cast it upon the shore of Italy. The Romans 
looked it over carefully, and made some ships like it. They 
put their soldiers into them and pushed out to sea. Ap- 
proaching the enemy, the Romans let heavy iron hooks, fixed 
upon the ends of poles, fall upon the enemy's ships, and this 
fastened the vessels together two by two. The Roman 
warriors leaped upon the Carthaginian ships and fought 
as if on land, and conquered. From this time on, the Ro- 




Hanmi;,\i, 1'ki)ssi\(, rin: Rhhm . 

mans became more and more powerful and victorious upon 
the sea. 

The Great Hannibal. — Rome won in the first war with 
Carthage, and gained the island of Sicily. But some years 
later Carthage was again ready to fight. Her great gen- 
eral, Hannibal, had sworn everlasting hatred for the Ro- 
mans. Hannibal resolved to lead his splendid army and 
his huge war elephants into Italy. So he crossed the Strait 
of Gibraltar into Spain, where he won some victories over 



ROME CONQUERING THE WORLD 



23 



the Romans. Then he marched with great difficulty through 
the steep mountain passes into Gaul, or France. The 
mighty Alps lay across his path, but Hannibal did not fal- 
ter. Rafts were built to ferry his elephants across the 
rivers, and before long his army was toiling through the 
foothills of the Alps. The snow was deep in the mountain 
passes, the trails were narrow and slippery, and men and 
beasts fell over steep cliffs and were crushed to death upon 




146 B. C. 
Roman Dominion 
Roman Dependencies 



the rocks below. The hostile mountain tribes rolled stones 
down the steep slopes upon the struggling men. 

Carthage Taken. — At last Hannibal descended into 
Italy with his army and war elephants and won many 
battles over the Romans ; but he feared to attack Rome. 
After a time Hannibal was called back to Carthage, and the 
Romans followed and defeated him in Africa. Hannibal 
took his own hfe rather than fall into the hands of the 
Romans. After a hundred years of fighting, Carthage was 
taken by the plucky Rom.ans, who promptly burned it to 
the ground. They ran a plow over its site and forbade its 
ever being rebuilt. 

The Mediterranean a Roman Lake. — The Romans now 
ruled over nearly all the countries touching the western end 



24 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

of the Mediterranean, l)ut they were still dissatisfied. They 
kept pushing their boundaries farther and farther, until the 
entire Mediterranean Sea, from east to west, became a 
Roman lake, in which no other nation dared so much as wash 
its hands. Greece fell an easy victim to the well-trained 
Roman warriors, because she was divided into so many 
little states, which were jealous of one another and fighting 
among themselves much of the timje for leadership. 

The Treasures of Greece. — The Greeks were a wonder- 
fully learned and cultivated people. They were great 
students, and their books contained treasures of knowledge 
and poetry of great excellence. They loved to make beauti- 
ful things. Their cities were filled with splendid fountains 
and statues, with gymnasiums and temples, the most beauti- 
ful the world has ever seen. They adorned their temples 
with marble seats, matchless statues of their gods, with 
busts and vases, and with porches supported by splendid 
columns. In making beautiful things, whether of marble 
or bronze, of silver or gold, or in painting lovely pictures, 
the Greeks have surpassed all other nations. The world 
to-day bows down to them as the leaders in beautiful art 
and in the deep learning that we call philosophy. 

Bearing the Riches to Italy. — When the Romans con- 
quered Greece, they plundered the cities, and carried to 
Italy shiploads of beautiful things, — priceless statues and 
busts of marble and bronze, adorned with gold, silver, 
and jewels; vases and urns beautifully carved, and all the 
rich furniture of homes and temples. The Romans brought 
along many books written in the Greek language, and thou- 
sands of educated Greeks, whom they made their slaves. 

Pushing the Boundary Eastward. — Pompey, a great 
Roman general, conquered the East, and made the far-off 
Euphrates River the eastern boundary of the Roman power. 



ROME CONQUERING THE WORLD 



25 




26 DAWN OF AMERICAN fflSTORY IN EUROPE 



Upon his return to Rome he was given a grand triumph 
through the streets of the capital. In the procession were 
seen the spoils of his campaign. Three hundred and twenty 
princes walked as captives before the conqueror's chariot. 
Banners were borne along which announced that Pompey 

had conquered twenty- 
one kings, taken a thou- 
sand forts, nine hundred 
towns, eight hundred 
ships, and subdued 
twelve millions of 
people. 

The Greatest of All 
Romans. — Another Ro- 
man, JuHus Caesar, led 
his legions into Gaul and 
added what are now 
France and Spain to 
Roman territory. Caesar 
found it very hard to 
subdue that part of Gaul 
near the English Chan- 
nel, because the Britons 
were sending aid to the 
Gauls. So Caesar deter- 
mined to punish the 
Britons for interfering. 
He crossed over into 
Britain and won victories there, but he did not remain 
long. Caesar was a great general, and his victories had 
made him famous. He returned to Rome, where he was 
appointed to high office. He soon became absolute master 
of Rome^ and proved himself even greater as a statesman 




C^SAR, THE Greatest oe the Romans. 



ROME CONQUERING THE WORLD 27 

and ruler than as a general. Some leading Romans, how- 
ever, became jealous of his growing power and slew him. 

Augustus Willing to Stop. — The great Augustus, who was 
emperor at the time that Christ was born, said the empire 
was at last big enough. Her boundaries reached to the 
desert sands of Africa on the south, to the far-off Euphrates 
River on the east, and to the Rhine and Danube Rivers on 
the north, while her western border was the Atlantic Ocean. 




A Portion of the Roman Wall. 

All the great nations of the earth had now been conquered, 
and their lands made a part of the Roman empire. When 
you cast your eye over this vast empire, you behold within 
it many countries. There were Italy, Switzerland, half 
of Austria, Turkey and Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, 
all North Africa, Spain, and France, besides many islands. 
Rome, the Eternal City, was then indeed the light and ruler 
of the world. 

The Natural Boundaries of the Empire. — But how 
could Rome hold such vast domains under her sway ? Did 



28 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

she not need an immense army to guard such extended 
boundaries against the swarms of barbarians on all sides ? 
It would seem so, but these boundaries were themselves a 
fairly good protection. The empire was guarded on the 
west by the stormy Atlantic, on the south by the desolate 
sands of the Sahara and Arabian deserts. It was only upon 
the Euphrates and the Rhine-Danube borders that the 
mighty and sleepless legions were needed to watch and 
guard. 

Keeping out the Germans. — But so ferocious were the 
German barbarians on the north, that a later emperor 
built a huge wall from the headwaters of the Danube to 
the headwaters of the Rhine. This great wall was three 
hundred and thirty-six miles in length, fifty feet thick at 
the base, and higher than your schoolroom. Along this 
wall were frequent forts and castles. There were also watch- 
towers near enough to one another to signal by lighting 
fires at night, and by other signs by day. Outside the wall, 
on the barbarian side, was a wide ditch, and beyond this 
was a stretch of waste land which the Germans might never 
cross unless they were accompanied by the Roman soldiers. 

Seizing Upon Britain. — -Later emperors undertook to 
subdue the wild Britains who then occupied the island of 
England. All the southern portion of the island was con- 
quered, and made into a Roman province. But so tame- 
less were the wild tribes of what is now Scotland, that even 
the brave Romans gave up the task of subduing them. 
It was easier, they thought, to build a huge wall across the 
island from sea to sea to protect the province than to try 
to overcome these savages of Scotland. 

Another Mighty Wall. — The first wall across England 
was of earth, but later a solid stone wall eighty miles long 
was constructed. It was from six to ten feet thick and 



ROME CONQUERING THE WORLD 



29 



eighteen feet high, with a mighty ditch on the north or 
barbarian side. Beyond this wall there was nothing worth 
fighting for, because the battle, even if the Romans won, 
would have to be fought over and over again. These old 
Picts and Scots, if beaten, took to the mountains, but were 
back the next day ready for another trial of strength. 

The World Ruled by Rome. — To the Roman empire, 
which already included the whole civilized world, England 
was now added. All in all, the empire embraced an area 
as large as the United States, and in it lived one hundred 
millions of people. 

Roman Roads. — There was another thing besides the 
bravery of her soldiers that aided Rome in conquering and 



'ZP^'l. 




u 



iyy/'^f^' >-"' 



Cross Section of a Roman Road. 



ruling the whole civilized world, and that was her magnifi- 
cent roads. They were the most solid roads that the world 
has ever known, and they were built out from the gates of 
Rome in all directions. As soon as the soldiers subdued a 
new country, they at once set about to extend these fine 
roads to it. The Romans knew nothing of steam or elec- 
tricity, and so their best means of travel was a good wagon 
road. Troops and supplies for the army had to move 
quickly in order to protect such wide boundaries. 

Roads Made Straight. — The quickest roads for soldiers 
were, of course, the shortest, and so these military roads 



30 DAWN OF AMERICAN fflSTORY IN EUROPE 

were made to run as nearly straight as possible. They cut 
through hills, they bored great tunnels through mountains, 
and they spanned wide rivers with high bridges of stone. 
The arches of these bridges were often a hundred feet high 
and a hundred and fifty feet wide. The Trajan bridge over 
the Danube was more than a mile long. 

The Claudian Way. — After two thousand years of use 
or nesflect, some of these fine roads are still good. " Some 




A Roman Bridge. 

of the tunnels are also used. One of the roads in service 
to-day is the Claudian Way. It was three hundred and 
fifty miles long and paved with the hardest flint. It was 
broad enough for two carriages to pass each other. The 
stone flags were often five feet square, and so well cemented 
together that they appeared but one stone. Below the 
stone were two layers, the first of rough stone cemented 
with mortar, and the lower layer of gravel. These layers 



ROME CONQUERING THE WORLD 31 

measured about three feet thick, and were well bedded in 
ground that had been first leveled and beaten hard. 

Conveniences Along the Way. — The roads were raised 
somewhat, so as to command a view of the surrounding 
country. On either side were stone footpaths. Measuring 
from the gates of Rome, there were milestones along all 
roads to the very hmits of the empire. On each of those 
stones was marked the distance from the capital. At 
shorter intervals were stones for travelers to rest on, or to 
assist them in mounting horses. In later days, inns were 
built along the roads a half day's journey apart, where fresh 
horses were kept for the use of the messengers of the em- 
peror. Travelers made good speed on these stone roads. 
Caesar passed from the Rhine River to the capital, a 
distance of eight hundred miles, in eight days. Along the 
roads were camps or forts, about which towns grew up for 
trade, just as they do along railroads to-day. These splen- 
did roads and bridges and tunnels were built by the 
Roman soldiers during days of peace. 

Provinces Become Romanized. — Without the roads 
Rome could not have held her vast empire together for a 
single year. With them, she not only held her distant 
provinces with a firm grip, but she extended to them her 
just laws, her fine schools, her glorious Latin language, and 
even her customs and manner of living. So the provinces 
became thoroughly Romanized, and the people were happy 
and well protected. Rome knew how to rule well. Her 
good laws and wise judges gave out justice and fair treat- 
ment to rich and poor ahke. In law and government, Rome 
has been the teacher of the world. 

Country Estates. — All over the country districts were 
beautiful villas or farm homes and elegant summer resi- 
dences of the wealthy city folk. The land was held in great 



32 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

estates and worked by hundreds and sometimes thousands 
of slaves under hired overseers. 

Cities of the Empire. — The empire was dotted with 
hundreds of great cities ; some, Hke Rome and Alexandria, 
were nearly as large as the city of Chicago to-day. Most 
of the people lived in cities, and such cities as they were! 
We think it wonderful to-day that we have in our whole 
country a few buildings of marble, but there were hundreds 
and thousands of cities in the Roman empire that had 
marble buildings — libraries, temples, baths, and palaces. 
Augustus boasted that he found Rome a city of brick, and 
left it a city of marble. 

Commerce Safe and Rapid. — Throughout the Roman 
world commerce was safe. Pirates had been driven from 
the seas and robbers from the land. The harbors were 
crowded with ships, and the Mediterranean swarmed with 
sails. Between Europe and Central Asia, there was a flour- 
ishing commerce, carried along three great routes : one 
by way of the Black Sea, and by caravan across Asia; 
one by way of the Suez and the Red Sea, to India ; and one 
by caravan across Arabia. From frontier to frontier travel 
and trade were safe and rapid. The grand military roads 
ran in great trunk lines from every frontier toward Rome. 
From these main highways ran branch roads which formed 
a dense network in every province. Routes and distances 
were given in guidebooks, and there were many hotels along 
the way. Messengers who hurried along the great high- 
roads traveled a hundred or a hundred and fifty miles a day. 
In all the provinces, rude stockaded villages changed into 
splendid cities, huts into palaces, footpaths into paved 
Roman roads. The Romans watered part of the African 
desert and made it the garden of the world. The traveler 
of to-day may see the ruins amid the drifting sand. In 



ROME CONQUERING THE WORLD 



33 




34 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Gaul Caesar found no real towns ; in the third century that 
province had one hundred and sixteen flourishing cities, 
with their baths, temples, amphitheaters, works of art, roads, 
aqueducts, and famous schools of learning. 

Centuries of Peace. — We are told that for centuries 
the entire civilized world was at peace. There were oc- 
casional wars on the distant frontiers, but the millions of 
Romans throughout the empire heard and saw little of war. 
•Thus there was peace and prosperity everywhere. Never 
before or since has so large a part of the world known such 
a long time of unbroken rest from the horrors and waste 
of war. The great historian, Gibbon, said that he would 
rather have lived at some time during those centuries of 
peace than at any other time in the world's history. 

The Spread of a New Religion. — It was in these days, 
when all the civilized world was at peace, when there was 
one language and one law for all, when there was a vast 
trade and unhmited travel among all parts of the empire, 
that Christ lived and taught and was crucified. No better 
time could have been chosen for the spread of a new re- 
ligion. Rome allowed all religions in the empire. People 
might worship as they pleased, provided only that they 
would also worship the emperor. The teachings of Jesus 
were quickly carried by missionaries over the entire Roman 
world. At first only the lowly and the poor beheved in 
Jesus ; but as the centuries passed, the rich and noble classes 
began to accept Christianity. 

Christians Persecuted. — Because the Christians held 
meetings in secret and refused to mingle with other people, 
or to celebrate Roman holidays, and because they refused 
to worship the emperor or enlist in the army, they were 
thought to be traitors to Rome. And so they came to be 
bitterly persecuted. Even the best emperors put many to 



ROME CONQUERING THE WORLD 



35 




1,6 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

the sword and threw others to the hons ; but they could not 
stamp out the new sect. Once when a great part of the city 
of Rome was hurried to the ground, and the people were 
accusing their wicked emperor, Nero, of ordering it done 
so that he might build it up again more beautiful than 
before, Nero declared that the Christians had burned the 
city. To make it appear that he was innocent, he be- 



Arch of Const. wtine. 

gan torturing and killing the Christians. He covered 
their bodies with tar and burned them at night as 
torches in his imperial gardens. Some he wrapped in the 
skins of wild beasts and threw them to dogs to be torn 
and killed. 

Empire Becomes Christian. — The more the Christians 
were persecuted, the more they increased in numbers. The 
Romans had ceased to beheve in their old gods ; and as the 
Christians increased, there came at last an emperor who 
needed their help. Constantine was hard pressed by his 
rivals, and wished to have the Christians help him to 



ROME CONQUERING THE WORLD 37 

strengthen his grip upon the throne. Constantine there- 
fore made the cross his standard, granted the Christians 
freedom of worship, and made the Sabbath a day of rest. 
This brought the Christians to his aid. With their help 
and enthusiasm he triumphed over his rivals. And now 
at last Christianity was tolerated and even protected by 
law, and multitudes of the people quickly accepted it. 



QUESTIONS 

I. Locate Rome. 2. How was it protected ? 3. How did Rome 
first gain more territory ? 4. Describe the fall of Carthage. 5. Who 
had built up Carthage ? 6. What did its fall mean to Rome ? 

Greece — 7. Discuss the Greek ways of living. 8. What were 
the ideals of Greece ? 9. In what ways was she superior to Rome ? 
10. Why was Rome able to conquer Greece ? 11. What part of Greek 
civilization was absorbed by the Romans ? 12. What part was lost ? 
13. Of what gain was this conquest to Rome ? 14. Is it a fortunate 
or unfortunate thing for the world that Rome conquered Greece? 
15. Why? 

Pompey'sWork — 16. What kind of man was Pompey ? 17. What 
was his ambition? 18. What did he do for the Roman Empire? 
19. How was he honored ? 

CiESAR's Work — 20. What was Caesar's ambition ? 21. Wherein 
lay his power? 22. Compare him with Pompey. 23. What did he 
add to the Roman Empire ? 24. Describe his campaign in Britian. 
25. What became of Caesar ? 

The Roman Empire — 26. At the height of its power what was the 
size of the Roman Empire ? 27. What were its boundaries ? 28. On 
which boundaries was there great need of protection ? 29. Why ? 
30. How did Rome protect herself from the barbarians? 31. How 
did she hold her land ? 32. Why did Rome keep shifting her legions 
from one place to another ? 

Roads — S3- What need was there for good roads? 34. How 
were they made ? 35. To what use were they put ? 36. What con- 
veniences were there along the roads ? 37. How did people travel 
over them? 38. Show how they affected the growth of towns. 



38 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IX EUROPE 

39. What is the meaning of Romanizing the provinces ? 40. Tell 
four ways in which Rome did this. 41. What do you think were the 
most important ideas that she spread ? 42. During her long peace 
period, how did Rome grow ? 43. Describe her towns. 44. What 
in them came from Greece ? 45. Describe the old country estates. 
46. What other names were there for them ? 



CHAPTER III 

HOW THE ROMANS LIVED 

The Romans Loved Beautiful Things. — From their con- 
tact with the noble art and architecture of the Greeks, the 
Romans learned to love beautiful things. They were soon 




The Fates — Greek Art. 

found copying and imitating the beauty of Greek art ; but 
it was merely copying, for the Romans never succeeded in 
producing much that could be called original. 

Art, Architecture, and Learning. — In every city and home 
there were educated Greek slaves. They were far above 
their Roman masters in learning and culture, and they be- 
came the teachers of the Roman youths. In this way the 
learning and art of Greece were scattered over the Roman 
world. Wherever the victorious legions marched, they 
carried these wonderful gifts of the Greeks. And so the 

39 



40 



DAWN OF AMERICAN fflSTORY IN EUROPE 



whole empire came to love books and learning, as well as the 
comforts and luxuries first found in the cities of Greece. 

Mosaics. — -The Romans 
were soon decorating their 
buildings with splendid stat- 
uary, beautiful paintings, and 
especially with wonderful mo- 
saic pictures. These mosaics 
were made of small cubes of 
colored glass or stone, so put 
together as to make beautiful 
pictures. Sometimes a series 
of such mosaics were so ar- 
ranged as to tell a complete 
story ; for example, a fable 
with perhaps a fox stealing 
chickens to represent night, or 
a crowing cock to indicate 
morning. These costly mosaics were used for decorating 





A Roman Mosaic Pavement. 



HOW THE ROMANS LIVED 



41 



floors and walls, not only in public buildings but in the 
best private homes. 

Common Workmen were Artists. — Even the plainer 
homes had their marble busts and statuary, and their 
walls were decorated with splendid paintings instead of 
wall paper. There was such an enormous pubhc demand 
for artistic things that many artists were needed. Even 
the common people became 
good judges of art, and 
everybody was glad to 
lend a touch of beauty to 
whatever he possessed. 
The common workmen and 
decorators knew enough of 
art to paint copies of fa- 
mous pictures on the plaster 
walls of the poorer homes 
that they decorated. We 
Americans are far, far be- 
hind the Romans in our 
ability to make and to ap- 
preciate beautiful things. 

Roman Monuments. — What books and printing are to 
us, art and architecture were to Romans. They recorded 
great deeds, not so much by writing them down in books, 
as by building magnificent arches and columns and monu- 
ments to commemorate them. 

How Work was Divided. — In the cities the people lived 
very much as we would be living to-day if we did not know 
about steam and electricity. They divided up their work. 
There were mechanics, engineers, physicians, dentists, 
teachers, barbers, bakers, and merchants and traders of all 
sorts. These trades and professions were carried on by 




A Roman Wall Painting. 



42 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



slaves and by men who had once been slaves. Roman 
citizens thought that all work was unbecoming to them ex- 
cept that of a lawyer, an officer, a soldier, or the master 
of an estate. Even teaching and medicine were practiced 
only by Greek slaves or freedmen. 

Books of the Romans. — There were no printing machines 
or movable type in those days, so all books were made by 
copying with pen and ink. Thousands of slaves were thus 
kept busy making new books, and, it is said, they became 

cheap because the slaves 
learned to copy so fast. 
Books were sometimes writ- 
ten on parchment, or sheep- 
skin, but these were expensive. 
The common material used 




Reading a Roman Book. 



was papyrus. 

How Paper was Made. — 

Paper was made from the pith 
of the papyrus plants. The 
pith was cut into strips, and 
these were placed side by side 
upon a wet board and pasted 
together. A second layer was placed upon this with the 
strips running the other way. These two layers were then 
pressed into paper and dried. There were as many as 
nine kinds of paper, from the best quality of letter paper 
to common wrapping paper. 

Queer Books. — Sheets of this paper were pasted together 
to make long rolls on which books were written, in columns, 
A book roll was often a hundred feet long. In reading, the 
roll was held in both hands, to be unrolled by one and rolled 
up by the other, as the reader progressed. 

Writing Letters and Messages. — When the Romans 



HOW THE ROMANS LIVED 43 

wrote messages and letters that they did not wish to pre- 
serve, they used tablets or squares of thin wood covered with 
wax. On this they wrote with a metal stylus about the 
size of a pencil, pointed at one end for writing in the wax, 
and fiat at the other for erasing, or smoothing away the 
letters. Several of these tablets made up a letter and were 
tied together and sent by a messenger. The same tablets 
were used to send back a reply. 

Schools and Education. — In the early days of Rome 
there were no public schools. The sons of Romans were 




An Old Roman School. 

tutored privately. But both public and private schools 
were established later, in which reading, writing, simple 
arithmetic, and Latin literature were studied. They 
taught much public speaking and elocution, because 
this was needed in public life. A good speaker was 
sure to be in favor among the people. Having no news- 
papers, the Romans got most of their information from 
speakers. 



44 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Going Abroad to Study. — The sons of the wealthy went 
to Greece to study. They learned to speak Greek as well 
as their native Latin language. Each boy was accompanied 
to and from school by a slave whom they called pedagogus. 
Education was for the Roman citizens only. The slaves 
had no chance, except a few promising ones who were wanted 
for clerks. Above the grammar schools were the great 
universities ; one at Rome, famous for law ; one at Alex- 
andria, famous for its medical school ; and one at Athens. 

Romans Loved a Good Time. — The emperor gradually 
took the government out of the hands of the people, and 
since all work was done by slaves, the Romans came to 
spend much time in amusements. In daytime they might 
be found at the theater, the games, in the forum, or at the 
baths. 

Public Baths. — The Romans built magnificent baths 
in every city in the empire. By bathing twice a day they 
thought they could make two days out of one, and thus 
double the length of their lives. Some took as many as a 
dozen baths in a summer's day, with banquets at the 
homes of friends between. They could be seen clad in 
bathing costumes going back and forth from the homes of 
friends to the public baths. 

Magnificence and Comforts of Baths. — The baths were 
of all kinds, some simple, and some with every possible 
luxury. The walls were adorned with gorgeous mosaics, 
and water flowed from solid silver taps into basins of marble. 
Water was provided at all temperatures. There were rooms 
for gymnasiums, restaurants, libraries, picture galleries ; 
there were lounging rooms and shops for the sale of per- 
fumes. There were magnificent private baths also, but 
even the emperors frequently used those open to the pubUc. 
Emperor Severus was often seen returning to his palace in 



HOW THE ROMANS LIVED ^ 45 

bathing costume, bearing no mark of his rank save his purple 
cloak. 

Slaves rubbed the bodies of their masters and afterward 
applied oil and perfume to them. So large and so numerous 
were the baths of Rome, that sixty thousand people could be 




Ruins of the Aqueducts, Rome. 

cared for daily. Ruins of these splendid baths have been 
found under every sky throughout the empire. 

City Water Systems. — To supply these numerous baths, 
water was brought to the city by great aqueducts, through 
which rivers flowed from distant mountains into the city 
water system. As the baths increased in number new 



46 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

aqueducts were needed, until there were at Rome twenty in 
all, the longest being forty-five miles. Nothing that the 
Romans built, except their splendid roads, gives clearer 
proof of their greatness. The aqueducts were usually 
built beneath the surface ; but when a valley was to be 
crossed, they were supported on huge stone arches, some 
of which were more than one hundred feet high. The 
tunnels of some of these aqueducts through which the water 
flowed were so large that a man might ride through them 
on horseback. So well were these aqueducts built, that 
now after many, many centuries, some of them are still 
standing, and they have been repaired so as to supply the 
city with water from the far-off hills. 

The Circus. — The Romans had their circus, where chariot 
races were held, and such feats were perform.ed as we see 
in a modern circus. Everybody attended the races. Some 
gambled on them. The Great Circus would seat many 
thousand people. Riots sometimes broke out here. On 
one occasion thirty thousand rioters are said to have been 
killed in the tumult. 

! Who Paid the Bill. — But chariot races after a time did 
not interest the lazy Roman people. To entertain the mob, 
great amphitheaters were built where men, called gladiators, 
and wild beasts fought to the death. The people looked 
upon games as a debt owed them by the politicians and the 
rulers. Anybody who wished to win favor among the 
people provided games or races, which were free to all. 
Almost any event served as an excuse for them, even a 
doubtful victory on the far-off frontiers. 

Street Parades. — Sometimes a general who wished to 
celebrate a victory and win favor among the people ar- 
ranged for a splendid procession before the game. In one 
procession the common people and soldiers marched to the 



HOW THE ROMANS LIVED 



47 



capital in white cloaks, followed by women and slaves, 
bearing wax tapers and lamps. In the procession were a 
hundred white oxen, two hundred white sheep, ten ele- 
phants, twelve hundred gladiators, and two hundred domes- 
tic animals, besides troupes of actors. On such occasions 
the city took a holiday and enjoyed the splendid pageant. 
Wild Beasts from the End of the Earth. — At first only 
wild animals fought in the amphitheater. Wild animals 




Interior of the Coliseum. 

from every corner of the world were turned loose to tear one 
another to pieces, while a hundred thousand men and women 
in hohday attire looked on. There were lions and tigers, 
leopards and elephants, from the jungles of Africa and Asia ; 
there were bears from the frozen north, and monsters from 
the sea. 

Animals in the Arena. — Underneath the great amphi- 
theater were cages for the wild beasts. At a signal, the 
cages were brought up on an elevator, the doors were thrown 



48 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

open, and the animals leaped out into the arena. Several 
hundred lions sometimes tore one another to pieces in one 
spectacle. Augustus tells us that in twenty-six exhibitions 
given by him, thirty-five hundred animals were killed in the 
amphitheater. On one occasion , when the Cohseum was com- 
pleted, five thousand animals were slain in one day. The 
Coliseum would seat many thousand spectators. The arena 
was large enough for several hundred animals to fight at one 
time. It was covered with sand, but there were water pipes 
beneath, and it could be flooded for monsters of the ocean, 
or for naval fights. 

Men and Beasts Fight. — But the worst combats of the 
amphitheater were those of men — gladiators they called 
them. Gladiators were usually slaves, captives, or crim- 
inals. Sometimes even Roman citizens entered the arena 
for money, but by so doing they lost their standing among 
respectable people. Untold numbers of men were killed 
in these combats. After one great Roman victory, games 
and shows continued for one hundred and twenty-three 
days, in which eleven thousand animals of different kinds 
were killed and ten thousand gladiators fought. Some- 
times the men fought beasts, but the gladiators also fought 
with one another. 

Thumbs Down, He Dies. — The gladiators at first fought 
a sham battle with wooden swords, and then at a signal 
of the trumpet, they took up their steel armor and rushed 
at each other with the sharpest swords. They fought until 
one lowered his arms as a sign that he was vanquished. 
The victor then turned to the spectators to know if they 
wished him to spare the life of his opponent. If the spec- 
tators wished the man to be slain, they turned their thumbs 
down; if they wished him to be spared, they turned their 
thumbs up. After each combat, whether of beasts or men, 



HOW THE ROMANS LIVED 



49 



slaves entered the arena with hooks and dragged out the 
dead and those mortally wounded. 

There were schools for the training of these gladiators, 
who were in great demand in every large city of that great 
empire. Sometimes after a gladiator had killed his oppo- 
nent in one combat after another, he was given his freedom. 
Not only city people attended these games, but country 




In the Arena. 

people for miles around came flocking by the thousands to 
them, as people do nowadays to a league ball game or to 
the circus. 

The Scramble for Tickets. — At the close of these state 
games, presents were given to the common people. Nero, 
on one occasion, threw tickets for all sorts of things into 
the crowd for it to scramble for. There were tickets for 
corn, for articles of food, for birds, for money, pearls, pic- 
tures ; tickets for horses, cows, ships, and even for houses 



50 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

and lands. There was a terrible scramble for them, and 
many were hurt. Respectable folk usually went home be- 
fore the distribution began. 

Rome's Greatest Evil. — But the crowning evil of these 
later Romans was human slavery. Some slaves they ob- 
tained by war, some by way of punishment for crime, and 
some were born in slavery. On one occasion ten thou- 
sand were bought in a single day on the island of Delos. 
Enemies of Rome who surrendered willingly were allowed 
their freedom, but those who were taken in the field or 
while storming cities were sold at auction. After the cap- 
ture of Jerusalem, Titus sold ninety-seven thousand Jews 
into slavery. 

Large Number of Slaves. — The Roman slaves were not 
dull, degraded savages or negroes. They were white men, 
and often highly educated. Many of them were superior 
even to their masters in learning and culture. They 
brought prices ranging from $25 for a common drudge to 
$10,000 for a fine cook, a steward, or a clown. The number 
of slaves in Rome and Italy was very large. Some rich 
Romans had several thousands — so many that they did 
not even know their names. 

Indoor Work of Slaves. — Slaves waited at table. Some 
put the plates in order, some gave the guests water and 
towels to wash and wipe their hands, some served the bread, 
some brought in the food and set the cups, some carved, 
and some served wine. In hot weather slaves cooled the 
room with fans and drove away the flies. There were 
slaves to dress the hair, others for shaving ; slaves for 
cutting the nails, and slaves to put on the master's shoes. 
Every great household had its physicians, artists, secre- 
taries, Hbrarians, copyists ; its teachers, readers, authors, 
and philosophers ; and they were all slaves. 



HOW THE ROMANS LIVED 51 

On the Street. — When masters were invited out to dine, 
slaves carried their slippers and other articles of dress that 
were needed. In their walks about the city each master 
had a slave to tell him of approaching acquaintances and to 
whisper their names in his ear. 

Other Work of Slaves. — Not only did slaves do all the 
domestic work, but they were employed in trades and manu- 
factories, and they raised the crops and took care of the 
great estates. They were promoted according to behavior 
from such positions as that of drudge or common slave in 
town to that of overseer in the country. In the later days 
of the empire slaves were employed on public works, such 
as building bridges, cleaning sewers, and keeping up the 
aqueducts. 

How Slaves were Treated. — Slaves were not allowed to 
wear the clothing of free citizens, but must dress according 
to law so that they could be easily recognized. They were 
not allowed to marry. On the great estates it was difficult 
to oversee so many and keep them from running away. So 
they were chained together while they toiled in the fields 
and while they slept. The master had absolute power over 
them, just as though they were his cattle. He might whip 
them or put them to death. The common punishment 
was with the lash, but they were sometimes branded on the 
forehead with a red-hot iron. Sometimes they were shut 
up in a workhouse and made to turn a mill for grinding 
corn. When slaves were beaten, they were sometimes sus- 
pended, and a weight tied to the feet so they might not 
flinch. In case they were to be killed, they were usually 
nailed to a cross. There were, however, many good mas- 
ters, whose slaves were well treated and happy. Many pur- 
chased their freedom. Cicero said that a diligent slave 
could earn enough in six years to become a free man. 



52 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Later Romans Lazy and Worthless. — The early Romans 
hved pure and simple lives. So brave and patriotic were 
they, as you have read, that they became masters of the 
whole civilized world. But now after many centuries, the 
later Romans were becoming lazy, wicked, and worthless. 
They loved pleasure and amusements, and were more eager 
for wealth and high society than for honor and bravery. 




A Roman Dining Room. 

Later Romans Neither Work nor Fight. — Not only did 
the later Romans load all their work upon slaves, but now 
at last they would neither rule their country well, nor would 
they fight to protect it from the barbarians. The empire 
had become a mere shell. On every side savage hordes were 
breaking in to rob, to murder, and to burn. Why did not 
the Romans call out a mighty army, as they had done in 
the olden days, and hold the line of the two rivers so that not 
a German should set foot across it ? The Romans were no 
longer willing to do this, because they enjoyed life so much 



HOW THE ROMANS LIVED 53 

in their theaters, their circuses, their baths, and their beau- 
tiful villas in the country or at the seashore, that they no 
longer cared to go into the army. So worthless were they, 
that they had ceased to love their country and their Roman 
eagles enough to fight for them. Instead they preferred 
to hire some one else to do their fighting. 

Young Men Avoid the Army. — The government raised 
the pay of soldiers until all the money in the treasury was 
gone, hoping to make the soldier's fife attractive to young 
Romans. Lands were given to the veterans, and other 
favors shown to soldiers ; but all this failed to draw the 
lazy Romans into the army. Then laws were made, forc- 
ing every Roman proprietor either to go himself, to hire a 
substitute, or to pay a heavy fine of forty-two pieces of 
silver. But many of the young men of Italy chose to cut 
off the fingers of their right hand so that they could not 
hold their weapons rather than enter the army. 

Who the Hired Soldiers Were. — So the only thing to do 
was to hire soldiers, and the best soldiers to be hired were 
our Germans. " They did not have to ask leave of any 
ruler; often they came, rulers and all, across the border, 
and hired themselves for money to the Roman generals. 
It mattered httle if they were then employed to fight against 
their own brothers. They earned their pay, saw the world, 
and went home to fill the ears and the eyes of their kinsmen 
with the wonderful story of the precious spoils of Rome. 
Or, they stayed in the army, and rose to high positions, so 
that from the fourth century on, we find the very highest 
posts in the army and in the government filled by men 
whose fathers lived the life of the German barbarian." 

Love of Kin. — These barbarians became every day more 
dangerous to Rome. Goths and other Germans were en- 
rolled in the legions and given places of high command. 



54 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

They often invited their wilder relatives to come over and 
plunder Roman provinces, and then managed to let them 
escape unhurt. 

Taxes. — It took so much gold to pay the legions of 
soldiers, and such a vast amount of money to run the govern- 
ment with its host of dishonest officers and its costly shows, 
that the taxes ate up everything that the farmers made. 
Farmers preferred to become beggars rather than to toil 
hard in the heat of the day, and then to see everything 
snatched from them for taxes. They lost interest in farm- 
ing and abused the soil. The worn-out farms were finally 
abandoned. Beggars increased by the thousands and be- 
came such a danger that the government had to furnish 
them with free corn to prevent trouble, besides entertain- 
ing them with costly shows. Conditions were growing 
worse every year. 

A New Way to get Money. — The Romans had forgotten 
how to rule. When taxes failed to bring in money enough, 
the worthless emperor devised a new way. Wealthy people 
were put to death by the wicked Nero so that he might have 
their money. He built his Golden House by causing the 
death of rich men and taking their property. He ordered 
his old teacher, Seneca, to commit suicide for this very 
purpose. 

Tax Dodgers and Taxgatherers. — When the rulers were 
so wicked, their officers, by the hundred, practiced what 
we call " graft" ; that is, took money that did not belong to 
them. Rich men dodged taxes ; and the poor could not 
pay. What money was turned in from taxes was largely 
stolen by the taxgatherers, who became so numerous, that 
it was said that there were more taxgatherers than tax- 
payers. So the empire could neither get men to fight for it 
nor money to pay its debts. The Roman empire was now 



HOW THE ROMANS LIVED 



55 




56 DAWN OF AMERICAN fflSTORY IN EUROPE 

no longer fit to live. " Like an old tree, whose every root 
is decayed, it did not fall simply because the storm had not 
yet come." 

The Shell is Broken. — But now swarms of barbarians 
were sweeping over the frontiers. Everywhere they found 
an easy victory and wonderful spoils. Tribe after tribe 
followed until they took possession of the great Roman 
empire and made it their own. 

QUESTIONS 

I. Describe the beautiful decorations used in the homes, public 
buildings, and streets. 2. Who did this decorating? 3. What was 
the influence upon the people ? 4. Where have we like decorations ? 
5. What occupations did the people follow ? 6. Describe the Roman 
books. 7. Describe the Roman paper. 8. Describe the Roman 
schools. 9. Who were the teachers ? 10. What was taught ? 
II. Who were the speakers? 12. Of what importance were they? 

13. When was Christianity brought into the Roman Empire? 

14. How was it spread ? 15. How and why were the Christians per- 
secuted? 16. When did the empire turn Christian ? 17. TeU four 
ways in which Christianity raises the civilization of a country. 

Amusements — 18. Describe the circus. 19. Describe the pa- 
rades. 20. Describe the arena fights. 21. Who were the gladiators ? 
22. What do you think was the effect of these amusements upon 
the people? 23. Describe the baths. 24. Where did the water 
supply come from ? 

Slaves — 25. Why did the Romans have slaves ? 26. Where did 
they get them ? 27. To what class of people did these slaves belong ? 
28. What work did they do ? 29. How were they treated ? 30. Were 
these slaves good for the Romans ? 31. Why ? or, why not ? 

Rome Weakened — 32. Why did Rome hire soldiers ? ^:i. Where 
did she hire them ? 34. How did she raise money to pay them ? 
35. What was the effect of hiring soldiers upon Rome ? 36. What 
was the beggar class? 37. How did Rome come to have a 
beggar class ? 38. Give five causes of Rome's weakness. 39. What 
was the greatest cause ? 40. To what is the weakness of Rome 
compared? 41. What was "the storm"? 42. Why did Rome 
fall ? 43. Give as many reasons as you can. 



CHAPTER IV 
BARBARIANS DESTROYING THE EMPIRE 

Fleeing from the Huns. — The West Goths, a tribe of 
Teutons who dwelt along the north bank of the Danube, near 
the Black Sea, were being driven southward by hordes of 
savage Huns. In the year of 375 the Goths came down to 
the bank of the river and begged the Romans to let them 
cross over into the empire for safety from their savage ene- 
mies. 

Who the Huns Were. — The Huns were frightful little 
men who swept over the country like a whirlwind, leaving 
only destruction behind them. Their hair was worn long 
and tied into a knot behind. Their noses were so much 
turned up that the frightened Romans fancied they had 
nothing but two holes in the middle of their faces. The 
Goths said the Huns were children of witches and demons, 
that they were pig-eyed, hideous beings, with cakes instead 
of faces, wearing " ratskin caps, armed with arrows tipped 
with bone, and lassos of cord ; eating, marketing, sleeping 
on horseback, so grown into the saddle that they could 
hardly walk in their huge boots." With them were tribes 
who painted their hair and skin blue, others who carried 
shields made of horses' hoofs, and decked their horses with 
human scalps ; and still others, armed with scythes and 
wrapped in cloaks of human skin. So fierce were these 
savage Huns that nothing could resist their wild charges. 

The Goths at School. — The West Goths, or Visigoths, 
who were now seeking entrance into the empire, were by 

57 



58 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



far the most advanced of all the barbarian tribes in their 
manner of living. From the long years of close touch with 
the Roman empire, with only the Danube between them and 

civilized Hfe, 
they had 
put aside 
ni a n y of 
their wild 
customs and 
rude man- 
ners, and 
had learned 
to behave 
somewhat 
like civilized- 
])eople. 

The Goths 
had crossed 
over this river 
more than 
once and had 
taken rich 
cities. They 
had fought so 
well with im- 
proved weap- 
ons that the 

Irene and Plutus. 

Roman em- 
peror had been forced to buy them off. They had built flat- 
bottomed boats, and with a fleet of five hundred ships had 
sailed along the Roman shores of the Black and Mediterra- 
nean seas, learning new customs, and ravaging as they went. 
They had penetrated into Greece and Athens, had looted the 




BARBARIANS DESTROYING THE EMPIRE 



59 



beautiful Parthenon, the treasure house of Greek art, and 
had been driven out with difficulty. In all this contact with 
Roman Hfe, they had seen and learned many things. 

Goths Make Good Promises. — The West Goths had even 
received Christian missionaries and become, after a fashion. 
Christians. They were now asking the Christian Romans 
to receive them as brothers and to protect them from being 




Constantinople and the Bosporus. Asia Minor across the Strait. 

cut to pieces by the savage Huns. They promised that if 
they were permitted to come across into the empire, they 
would become peaceable and loyal Romans and join their 
army to that of the emperor. 

The Emperor Gives Permission. — The Roman emperor, 
whose capital, since the days of Constantine, had been at 
Constantinople, hesitated a little to admit so near his 
capital such a multitude of barbarians. However, since 



6o DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

he, too, dreaded the Huns and needed more soldiers, he 
allowed them to come over. But they were forced to give 
up their arms and to deliver the children of their chieftains 
to the Romans to be educated. 

The Goths Inside the Empire. — Many days were con- 
sumed in getting the multitudes of Goths across the Danube, 
which is, at that point, over a mile wide. So great was their 
number that those who were set to count them gave up in 
despair. Including men, women, and children they were 
said to be a million strong. They gave up their children, 
but bribed the corrupt Roman officers to let them keep their 
beloved weapons. 

The Greedy Roman Governors. — Land was set apart 
for the Goths, but food had to be furnished them for a time, 
until they could cultivate their land and raise a crop. The 
funds sent by the emperor to buy them food were pocketed 
by the greedy and corrupt Roman governors who, instead, 
sold the starving Goths dog flesh at terrible prices. For 
a little good meat they charged the Germans outrageous 
sums. When their money was all gone, the Goths had to 
sell their children into slavery or starve: 

While the Romans were off guard along the Danube, the 
entire nation of East Goths dashed across the river boundary, 
arms in hand, and demanded for themselves the same favors 
that had been granted their kinsmen. 

Goths and Romans at War. — This encouraged the West 
Goths, who resolved to endure the ill treatment of the Ro- 
mans no longer. In a short time they came to blows with 
the Roman soldiers, the war cry was raised, and lighting 
began. The mighty Germans defeated the Romans and 
armed themselves with the weapons of the slain. They 
recovered some of their children, who told dreadful tales of 
how they had been treated, and the maddened Goths re- 



BARBARIANS DESTROYING THE EMPIRE 6i 

solved to have revenge. They went about killing, plunder- 
ing, and burning. It is said they left nothing ahve, not 
even the beasts of the field. Brambles and thickets soon 
grew up where 
once had been fair 
fields and growing 
crops. 

Risking All on 
One Battle.— 
Emperor Valens 
gathered his 
forces, came out 
from his walled 
cities, and risked 
everything upon 
one great pitched 
battle in the open. 
The battle took 
place near Adri- 
anople (378). 
The emperor lost. 
His light horse- 
men fled before 
the long lances 
and heavy swords 
of the" Gothic 

horsemen, who A Roman Godde^^ 

then turned on 

the Roman foot soldiers, broke their ranks, and put them 
to rout. Two-thirds of the Roman army were slain, and 
generals and officers without number. Emperor Valens fled, 
wounded, to a near-by cottage. The Goths set fire to it and 
burned him and his staff of officers before they knew that 




62 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

they had in their hands the Emperor of Rome, upon whom 
they had always looked with such awe and fear. 

The Shell is Broken. — From that day the end of 
the Roman empire was assured. It was only a matter of 
years. The Teutons had matched themselves against the 
Romans and had won a great victory. They had defeated 
and slain the Roman emperor himself — yes, they had 
killed " the man-god whom the world had worshiped for 




Alaric in Athens. 

centuries, and behold he died Hke other men." And it 
was all so easy. What was there left now that the 
Germans could not do? 

Alaric Chosen King. — Other tribes crossed the Danube 
on the ice and joined the Goths. After a few years the 
bold Alaric became their leader, and the mighty host swept 
down through Greece. Athens paid a ransom to be spared. 
Here " Alaric enjoyed a Roman bath and a public banquet 
and tried to behave for a day Hke a Roman gentleman." 

Making Greece a Desert. — The Goths sacked the 
splendid cities of Corinth and Sparta. They were eager for 



BARBARIANS DESTROYING THE EMPIRE 63 




ViCTOKV UF SaMOXHRACE. 



64 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

gold and silver, for purple and fine linen, and, especially, 
for rich meats and intoxicating drinks. The splendid 
pieces of sculpture and beautiful paintings which the Ro- 
mans had spared to the Greeks, were now trampled in the 
mud or broken by the huge battle-axes. No end of plunder 
was drawn away in their oxcarts. Vineyards, olive groves, 
and orchards were laid waste ; estates were destroyed ; 
buildings burned ; and men, women, and children were 
plundered, stripped, and driven off in gangs to become slaves 
to the barbarians. The path of the Goths became like a 
desert. There was now no enemy in the eastern part of the 
empire that dared face the barbarians in the field. So they 
marched hither and thither, wherever they liked, leaving 
destruction behind. 

Marching on Rome. — Alaric was at last defeated by the 
gigantic Stilicho, a German who was in command of the 
armies of the western empire. But after a time Alaric 
led his Gothic tribes from Greece around the head of the 
Adriatic Sea. The foolish emperor of the West had now be- 
come jealous of his great general, StiUcho, and had him 
murdered. When Alaric heard that Stilicho was dead, he 
marched straight on Rome. Down through Italy he passed 
without meeting an enemy, and sat down before the walls of 
the capital. The good-for-nothing emperor of Rome was 
safe behind the walls of Ravenna in northern Italy, and he 
made no effort to help his people at Rome. 

Starving Rome to Surrender. — For eight hundred years 
Rome had not seen a foreign enemy before her walls. Her 
people could hardly beHeve their eyes. Alaric did not try 
to storm the proud city, because he had no engines such as 
the Romans used to batter down the walls of cities. Quietly 
Alaric sat, he and his Goths, waiting for the Romans within 
to starve and die, for he would allow no provisions to be 



BARBARIANS DESTROYING THE EMPIRE 65 

taken into the city. And many did starve and die. Men 
maddened by hunger murdered one another for food. 

Romans still Proud. — Not until hunger and disease had 
worked dreadful havoc in the city, did the Romans send to 
ask terms of the barbarians. When the messengers of the 
city came before Alaric, they began with lofty pride to warn 
him not to make the Romans desperate by hard or dis- 
honorable demands. The}^ told Alaric that if he did, 
the fury of the Romans would be terrible ; besides, they 
warned him, their number was enormous. Knowing their 
weak and starving condition, Alaric laughed at their boast- 
ing, and said, " The thicker the grass the easier it is to mow." 
Then they asked him what terms he would take. 

Alaric 's Hard Terms. — " Give me all your gold, all your 
silver, all your movable property, and all your barbarian 
slaves, or the siege goes on," said the greedy Alaric. 
" What will you then leave us? " inquired the frightened 
Romans. " Your lives," replied the haughty Goth. 

They bought him off, however, with a strange ransom ; 
5000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, 4000 robes of 
silk, 3000 pieces of scarlet cloth, and 3000 pounds of pepper. 
The Romans had to strip the gold and jewels from the 
statues of their gods to raise the great ransom. The great 
amount of pepper probably consisted of spices of all kinds, 
which the Romans used to season their foods, and which the 
Germans were learning to like. 

Breaking the News to the Emperor. — An officer rushed 
into the presence of the worthless emperor at Ravenna 
and told him that Rome had perished. " What! " cried the 
emperor, " she was feeding from my hand an hour ago." 
He was greatly relieved when told that it was not his favor- 
ite hen, " Roma," but only the capital of his empire that 
had perished. 



66 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

An Offer of Peace. — Alaric got 40,000 Teuton slaves 
out of the wicked city and enrolled them in his army, which 
now numbered 100,000 lighting men. He might have made 
himself king of Italy but for his awe of Rome. He could 
not think of himself as fit to be king of that majestic city 
which he had all his life almost worshiped. So he offered to 
become an officer under the Emperor at Constantinople and 
to rule Italy under him. But when the conceited Romans 
refused him this honor, he cut oE the food supplies and 
marched on the capital in earnest. 

Plundering Rome. — At midnight one of the gates was 
opened, probably by a German slave within, and for six 
dreadful days and nights the rough barbarian warriors 
ransacked everywhere. Alaric commanded his followers to 
leave the Christian churches untouched, but the wealth of 
the citizens he gave them leave to take. The barbarian 
oxcarts went forth in long trains piled high with costly 
furniture, golden vessels, and silken garments. They had 
a table of solid emerald with its three rows of great pearls, 
a great dish, weighing a ton, covered with gems of India, and 
other priceless spoils. There were long columns of captives, 
too. 

Alaric 's Death. — Alaric marched south through Italy 
with his rich plunder, but he soon died. His devoted Goths 
turned the course of a river and buried their hero in its bed. 
" They buried him covered with mail, sitting upright upon 
his horse, with gold and jewels and arms, that he might 
make a worthy showing among the other dead heroes in 
Odin's hall. And then they turned back the river into its 
bed and slew the slaves who had done the work, that no man 
might know where Alaric lies ; and no man does know to this 
day." 

After the death of their king, the West Goths turned 



BARBARIANS DESTROYING THE EMPIRE » 67 



north and marched into Gaul and later into Spain, fighting, 
as they went, with different German tribes and bearing 
with them the treasures of Rome. They mingled with the 
Romanized inhabitants of Spain and became the forefathers 
of the modern Spaniards. 

Many Tribes Sweep over the Rhine. — While the Goths 
were marching through the empire, plundering as they went, 




The Tomb of Emperor JIaorian' at Rome. 

other tribes, much more barbarous, swarmed across the 
Rhine boundary. Whole nations came, — men, women, and 
children, horses, cattle and dogs, bag and baggage. Living 
on their flocks and herds and grinding their corn in hand- 
mills, they roamed wherever they liked, hunting and ravag- 
ing and burning. 

The Savage Vandals. — The most reckless destroyers of 
all were the Vandals. W^henever we now wish to speak of 
wicked destruction of property, we call it vandalism. The 



68 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Vandals were filled with wonder at the sights that they be- 
held in the fine cities of Gaul. They did not understand 
the art and the beautiful architecture that they saw on all 
sides. These Vandals had always lived in rude huts or 
roamed the forest. What use had they for the magnificent 
temples, baths, and mansions, filled with treasures of art? 
So they plundered and laid waste whatever they saw. 
Priceless statues and images of the Roman gods were 
stripped of their gold and jewels and then broken to pieces 
with huge battle-axes. 

One German warrior was waiting in the antechamber 
of a splendid house, when he was astonished to see ducks 
apparently swimming on the floor of the room. He dashed 
his battle-ax at the beautiful mosaic to see whether the 
ducks were alive. Like children, these wild people de- 
stroyed whatever attracted their idle curiosity. 

The Vandals in Africa. — The Vandals ravaged Gaul 
and Spain, crossed the straits of Gibraltar, and overthrew 
Roman authority in all northern Africa. Here they set 
up an empire of their own with Carthage as their capital. 

The Pirate Vandals. — - These Vandals, who had scarcely 
caught sight of the sea for generations, now soon became 
bold and daring pirates, spreading terror along the entire 
Mediterranean coast. When their leader, Gaiseric, was 
once setting out on a plundering expedition, he was asked 
by his pilot which way to steer. " Wherever there are 
people with whom God is angry," rephed the Vandal cap- 
tain. 

Vandals Looting Rome. — On one occasion they made a 
destructive raid on the city of Rome. For two weeks they 
hunted out valuables and plundered the city. They carried 
off whatever goods and precious spoils they could lay their 
hands on. But, Hke the Goths, they did not destroy 



BARBARIANS DESTROYING THE EMPIRE 69 




yo DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

the buildings. They took away with them hundreds of 
Roman citizens to serve them as slaves. We can see how 
low Rome had sunk, when we are told that all this hap- 
pened without the Romans striking a single blow in their 
own defense. 

The Franks. — Another German tribe, of whom we shall 
later hear much, were the Franks, who gave their name to 
modern France. The Franks for a long time had homes on 
both sides of the lower Rhine. They were ruder and more 
barbarous than the Goths, for they had not yet received 
the gentle message of Christianity. A half century after 
Alaric had ransacked Rome, the Franks began to add to 
their territory by spreading themselves out slowly 'over 
northern Gaul. These wild warriors wrought havoc wher- 
ever they went. Other tribes who came into the Roman 
empire during these dark days were 'the Lombards, the 
East Goths, the Burgundians, and the Suevi. 

Slipping Back into Barbarism. — From the fifth century 
on for three hundred years, the civilized world was slipping 
back into barbarism. The formerly civilized lands were 
plundered time after time by fresh, never-ending hordes 
of barbarians. Each raid destroyed more of the little good 
that was left, and human society seemed hopelessly wrecked. 

The Country Districts Ruined. — The destruction was 
complete in the rural districts. Villas, pillaged time and 
again, were at last abandoned. The paths and walks were 
grown up with thorns and briers, the doors were wrenched 
from their hinges, and the roofs were left open to the sky. 
Houses and mills were in ruins. 

Fields, once fair with growing crops, were now over- 
grown with forests or had passed back into marsh or desert. 
There was no hve stock to be seen — no hogs, sheep, cows, 
or horses. There was not even seed corn left by the 



BARBARIANS DESTROYING THE EMPIRE 



71 



plunderers, with which to start the raising of crops again. 
The wretched inhabitants took to hunting and fishing, 
hving meanwhile in the woods or caves. In some places 
all human beings had entirely disappeared, and sheep 




Ruins of the Roman Forum. 
Compare with the cut on p. 69. 

might be seen running wild and wheat springing up self- 
sown. 

The Cities Wrecked. — There were villages and towns 
almost wholly in ashes, with no inhabitants but dogs. 
City after city was taken and wrecked, now by Goth and 
now by Vandal or Lombard. The city of Treves in Gaul 
was four times looted by different barbarian tribes. "When 
the population was half destroyed by fire and sword, the 
poor dying of famine, corpses of men and women lying 
about the streets breeding pestilence, while dogs devoured 
them, the few Roman nobles who were left comforted them- 
selves by sending to the figurehead emperor to beg for 



72 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

games." The wretched people who had escaped death 
from the barbarians were soon swept away in countless 
numbers by the starvation and disease that stalked over 
the land. 

Rome a Den of Thieves. — A third time Rome was 
ransacked and plundered, until nothing was left but 
fever-haunted ruins. The towering walls of this once 
glorious capital were full of great holes and gaps. Broken- 
down aqueducts appeared here and there, and the people 
drank from the muddy Tiber, because not one of her score 
of aqueducts remained whole. Her noble and beautiful 
statues, her majestic palaces and libraries and temples 
— where were they ? The splendid villas along the Tiber 
were gone, the trees burned or cut down, the terraces had 
slipped away into the river, and the magnificent tombs 
along the Appian Way were broken and falling to pieces. 
Law and order were gone, and Rome had become a den of 
thieves and robbers. Men were brawling in the streets, 
ill clad and savage, armed with sword and knife and club. 
Children were running the streets wild and untaught, and 
were growing up to be fierce and ignorant Kke their fathers. 

Commerce and Travel cut Off. — The roads fell out of 
repair, and the bridges were torn down. Travel and com- 
merce were almost entirely stopped except along the Medi- 
terranean coasts, where a few ships dared to ply in spite of 
the swarms of pirates. Communication, not only between 
inland cities and countries, but even between neighboring 
towns, was broken off. Highway robbers were in hiding 
everywhere. Unable to get provisions from abroad, the 
people were left to feed and clothe themselves by their 
own toil. 

Knowledge and Skill Disappear. — Much of skill in 
making things was forgotten because the people, who were 



BARBARIANS DESTROYING THE EMPIRE 



73 




74 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

slipping back into barbarism, no longer cared for the con- 
veniences and luxuries that civilized people need. There 
was no longer any skill in art, building, or decorating, nor 
even a love for beautiful things. 

In the palmy days of Rome, industry had been purely 
domestic ; that is, all manufactured articles that were not 
brought from abroad were made in the homes. There 
were no factories. In the mansions of nobles, and even in 
the palaces of kings and emperors, women and serf work- 
men were employed to manufacture the coarse stuffs with 
which they clothed themselves and their households. 
These mansions had been many times looted by the bar- 
barians, and the workmen had been driven to the four 
winds. Thus skill in all these handicrafts was lost, and all 
manufactured articles became rude and barbarous like the 
people. 

Schools and Learning Vanish . — No one was now inter- 
ested in learning. In the wild days of the Prankish, the 
Gothic, and the Lombard kings, men had neither time nor 
desire for serious thought and study, much less for writing 
books. What writing they did was for the immediate calls 
of the day. The ability to speak and write the Greek lan- 
guage was entirely forgotten. 

Even the knowledge of Latin Hterature sank into a 
darkness that was to last for many hundred years, and 
spoken Latin was everywhere lost save among the monks 
and priests, who used it in the services of the church. All 
schools disappeared except those of the monastery. Men's 
minds were absorbed by the calamities about them. All 
power fell into the hands of the rude and ignorant barbarian 
chieftains. Their no less ignorant warriors became the 
great landowners and the ruling class. The centuries that 
followed were so full of ignorance, suffering, and blood- 



BARBARIANS DESTROYING THE EMPIRE 75 

shed that they were called the Dark Ages. But dark as 
the times were, they were the forerunner of better days. 

QUESTIONS 

The West Goths — i. Who were the West Goths? 2. What 
promises did they make? 3. How did the Romans treat them? 
4. What caused war between the Goths and the Romans? 5. De- 
scribe Alaric's advance. 6. What were its results? 7. Describe 
the march to Rome. 8. Describe the fall of Rome. 9. Where did 
the Goths go next ? 

The Vandals — 10. Who were the Vandals? 11. Where did 
they make invasions? 12. Results? 13. Compare the Vandals 
with the Goths. 14. What other barbarians were invading at this 
time ? 

The Franks — 15. Who were the Franks? 16. Where did they 
live? 17. How did they compare with the other Teutons? 
18. Why did they invade Rome? 19. Where did they settle? 
20. What was happening in Britain ? 21. What were the results of 
these barbarian invasions? 22. Show the effect of these invasions 
upon commerce, schools and learning, and upon the language. 
23. What period was called the Dark Ages ? 24. Sum up what you 
think were the causes of the Dark Ages. 



CHAPTER V 
THE TEUTONS AT SCHOOL IN THE EMPIRE 

What was Spared. — The wandering German conquerors 
did not by any means stamp out Roman civilization every- 
where. It is true that most districts of the empire were 
turned back into deserts and swamps, and hundreds of 
magnificent cities were wiped off the earth. But there 
were corners and out-of-the-way districts that escaped the 
plunderers almost entirely. A few widely scattered cities 
were also spared. And since the Germans, because of 
their wild, roving nature, refused to live in cities, the few 
towns that escaped were left to themselves. In these 
towns the people kept up much of the Roman manners, 
customs, language, and laws. These few centers of Roman 
life later taught the rough Germans many civihzed habits 
and arts, as well as the Romans' mode of governing cities. 
The churches and monasteries, being largely spared, also 
served to shelter many good things, until the barbarians 
were ready to accept them. 

What the Teutons Added. — The Germans, who were to 
begin where the Romans left off and carry on the world's 
work, brought new blood into the dying empire. Like a 
youthful nation, they refreshed the Latins \vith new hopes 
and ideas. They had a higher respect for woman; they 
refused to obey laws unless they had a voice in making 
them, for they believed that one freeman was as good as 
another, not excepting even the king. The Germans had 
the muscles and brains and pluck to do great things. All 

76 



TEUTONS AT SCHOOL IN THE EMPIRE 77 

they needed were good teachers and time to learn. So they 
gave a healthier tone to society. Though Roman life had 
declined to a very low mark, the Germans helped to start 
it anew. 

Ten Latins to One Teuton. — The barbarians were 
spread out unevenly over the empire, thinly in some places 
and thickly in others, while the great mass of the people 
under their control remained Latin as it had been before. 
In most parts of the empire there was not more than one 
German to every ten or even fifteen Latins, but the superior 
courage and fighting power of the Teutons enabled them to 
keep the upper hand. 

Seizing Upon Roman Lands. — Some barbarians, like 
the East Goths and Lombards in Italy, took but one-third 
of the land, leaving the rest to the Latins ; but the West 
Goths and Burgundians in Spain and Gaul took two-thirds. 
Other tribes had no fixed rule, but simply drove out the 
larger Latin landholders and took their estates. After 
years of war and strife, the two peoples settled down peace- 
fully, side by side. 

The Christian Church Well Established. — The Christian 
religion was thoroughly rooted in the empire long before the 
Teutons came. The Romans, both the rich and the poor, 
the high and the low, had come to respect and trust the 
church with its unselfish and noble-minded clergy. The 
Christian bishops and priests had already gained much 
power in moral and social Hfe. So much power had they, 
that they had put a stop to the great gladiatorial games, 
which had been so dear to the hearts of all the Romans. 
The church had also done away with suicide and with the 
worst cruelties of slavery in the empire. 

The Emperor Becomes Weak. — As the empire decHned 
and became at last too weak to preserve order in these wild 



78 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

times, the burden of controlling evil men, and of stopping, 
so far as they might, the endless robbing, quarreling, and 
bloodshed, fell more and more upon the priests. In this 
way, much of the power that formerly rested in the hands 
of the emperor and his government now fell to the Christian 
bishops and priests ; for, amid the vast ruins of that great 
empire, the church alone stood erect and strong. Churches 
were sometimes broken into and plundered, and their 
ministers put to the sword. Still the Christian leaders 
with noble courage faced the wild barbarians, holding out 
the " light of heaven," while the air was filled with storm 
and darkness, and the land with cruelty and bloodshed. 

Standing in the Emperor's Place. — Another thing that 
made the church strong, in these wild days, was the kind 
of men who were chosen for its leaders — • noble, unselfish, 
godly men, who were giving their hves in kindly service 
to others. The barbarians, who were everywhere robbing 
and seizing upon goods and lands, saw all about them the 
churchmen, taking none of the rich plunder. They saw 
that the priests did not live for the things of this world, and 
they could not help admiring and giving ear to them. 
Another thing that added to the influence of the clergy was 
the fact that they were permanent in office. Some of the 
most remarkable bishops held their power for very long 
periods of time, for fifty or even sixty years, while rapid 
changes were going on all about them. And so when the 
bishops spoke, the people gave heed. 

Something Stronger Than the Battle- Ax. — The rough 
characters of those savage times had very little respect for 
anything save the keen sword or the huge battle-ax. When 
rude barbarian chiefs, like Clovis, saw something stronger 
than force and greater than kings, they were bewildered 
and awed into respect. The church was a different power 



TEUTONS AT SCHOOL IN THE EMPIRE 79 

from any that they had ever met — a power that had no 
battle-axes and yet was not afraid of theirs. 

Bishops Awe the Barbarians. — The wild Germans 
looked upon the bishop as a pure, peaceable, just, and brave 
man. He had boundless learning, besides a room full of 
books and a map of the whole world. He could read, 
write, and cipher, talk Latin and, perhaps, Greek. They 
gazed at his wonderful dress and listened to his strange 
chants. What magical or supernatural power might he 
not have? 

Things New and Strange. — They entered the churches, 
trembling, and stared at the arts new to them, while they 
were kindly taught and fed by the bishops and priests. They 
gazed in wonder at the frescoes and carvings. The bishop 
preached to the king and his men, bold, brave sermons in 
the presence of the stone cofhri of the saint, for every 
church held the remains of some holy life. He told them 
to consider in whose presence they were and to cast out the 
seven deadly sins. He said, " This saint, asleep but ever 
awake, cannot abide those who rob the orphan and the 
widow ; he will watch them Hke an eagle in the sky and track 
them like a wolf of the wood till he punishes them with a 
great destruction." 

The Bishop's Sermon Strikes Home. — The courage of 
the bishop, who feared not to speak bravely and plainly 
even to these savage warriors, made the strong men blush 
and tremble. 

" Though the coat of mail never leaves my breast," 
said the king of the Goths, " and though my hand is ever 
at the brazen hilt of my sword and the iron guards my side, 
I have found a man who, for all my armor, can vanquish me 
with his words, which pierce like an arrow to my very 
heart." 



8o DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



Barbarians Accept the Church. — So the wild king and 
his wild warriors hesitated. They could face flesh and 
blood ; but who could face the terrible tortures of an angry 
God? Being men of wicked lives, their consciences made 
them cowards. " There must surely be," they said. 




St. Peter's, Rome. 

" some other power greater than the battle-ax." Every- 
where they went the barbarian chiefs met with these same 
fearless bishops. They knew that they must either accept 
and make terms with the church, or root it out and destroy 
it. They accepted the church, for the most part, in all 
countries of the empire, save in Britain. 

Bishops as Rulers. — In times of war the bishops be- 
came the messengers and peacemakers. They were the 
only trusted guides. They settled disputes about land 
boundaries without fighting; they protected the weak 
against the strong, the slave against his cruel master; 



TEUTONS AT SCHOOL IN THE EMPIRE 8i 

they taught the people to live pure lives. Being the only 
authority left during hundreds of years of darkness and 
strife, the church was the best teacher that the rough bar- 
barians had ; and it helped to lift them up slowly toward 
the level of civilized living. 

Germans Need the Latin Language. — The German set- 
tlers — • Goths, Franks, and Lombards — found them- 
selves in the business of life in daily contact with a 
Latin-speaking population many times more numerous 
than themselves. The Romans, whom we shall hereafter 
call Latins, were also more cultivated and lived upon a 
higher plane than their German overlords. If the bar- 
barians were to rule over these people, they must under- 
stand something of Latin. This was not the hterary 
Latin in which Caesar wrote his matchless history, and in 
which Cicero uttered his famous orations, but the Latin of 
the street, the Latin of the soldiers, farmers, workmen, and 
slaves, with its vulgar slang and outlandish pronunciations. 
The new masters could not talk with the woodsmen, the 
carpenters, and masons on their great estates, without 
acquaintance with their language. 

Where Latin Aids the Germans. — Whenever these rude 
German lords had need of the services of the church to 
baptize their children, or to bury the dead, they found that 
here, also, the only language in use was Latin. In the court 
or lawyer's oihce, the same was true. They soon found 
that their German dialect was too barbarous for use even 
in business and government. Latin would not only be a 
great aid to them in gaining power and influence, but they 
must learn it or be always looked upon as foreigners. 

Two Languages Side by Side. — For centuries the two 
languages were spoken side by side, varying in different 
districts, and among different classes of people, each bor- 



82 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

rowing words from the other. The Germans found that 
they had no words, whatever, for many things that they 
met with in this higher hfe about them, so they freely bor- 
rowed Latin names and expressions, 

Latin Triumphs. — The contest between the two lan- 
guages went on silently and unnoticed, but the Latin 
gradually took the lead, as being the best suited to the 
public needs. German continued for a long time the lan- 
guage of the home and fireside, but at length Franks and 
Goths married Latin wives, and in this way Latin came 
more and more into the homes. A few centuries blotted 
out almost every trace of the German dialects in Italy, 
France, and Spain. This was especially true in the cities. 

Rude Dialects Instead of Latin. — For many, many 
years, in fact for centuries, there was almost no travel or 
commerce. Each community lived very much to itself. 
Each province or country became peculiar in dress, in 
customs, and even in language. The people in different 
countries of the empire very gradually came to pronounce 
the same words differently, and when they again learned to 
read and write, they spelled the same words differently. 
Let us take the Latin word schola, meaning school, and see 
how it came to be spelled in different parts of the empire. 
In Italy, schola came to be spelled scuola ; in Spain, escuela; 
in Portugal, escola; and in France, ecole. From the differ- 
ent ways these words were pronounced you would hardly 
dream that they all came from the Latin mother word. 

Moreover, new words were coined and brought into use, 
at first perhaps as slang, just as we are making new words 
and expressions to-day ; but the slang of each province was, 
of course, utterly different from that of the others. Thus 
many dialects grew up, very unlike the mother Latin and 
unHke one another. These dialects, as the centuries passed. 



TEUTONS AT SCHOOL IN THE EMPIRE 83 

all ran apart like spokes from the hub of a wheel. Differ- 
ent provinces could no longer understand one another's 
language. In Spain the people came to speak Spanish 
dialects ; in France, French ; in Italy, Italian. So the lan- 
guages of these countries to-day are modified forms of Latin. 
For this reason the Spanish, French, Italian, and Portuguese 
languages are called Romance tongues. 

A Barbarian Lawsuit. — The Germans came into the 
empire, not only as armies, but as tribes ; and, as they 
settled, the tribes or nations broke up into clans, which 
were large groups of kinsmen. Outside the clan, or family 
group, there was no law to appeal to. If men got into a 
dispute, one way to settle it was by wager of battle ; that 
is, to fight it out fairly, either in single combat or with 
champions who fought for them. They believed that God 
would give victory to the right side. 

A Blood Feud. — Another way to settle the trouble was 
to ask the clan or family to take it up. Then a blood feud 
arose between two families, whose followers carried on a 
sort of warfare for years, during which time, in many in- 
stances, many were killed on both sides. 

Fines. — Still another way to settle difficulties was by 
fining the wrongdoer. Fines were called weregelds, and 
there were weregelds for every kind of misdeed. Among 
the Lombards, whose laws were at last written in Latin, a 
man who murdered another was lined 900 pieces of gold. 
For blinding another's eye, one was fined as much as if 
he had killed his enemy. Each limb had its price. A 
front tooth was worth sixteen coins, because it disfigured 
the face, while a back tooth was worth but eight. A slave's 
tooth was worth but four coins, for the barbarian laws 
were different for different classes of people. A noble or 
freeman was let off easily for a crime that would be severely 



84 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

punished if committed by a poor man or a slave. So a 
man was always fined less for injury to a serf or a slave than 
to a freeman. 

Breaking a Man's Head. — To call a man " a lazy loon " 
was a serious offense among the Lombards, and for this 
crime one must either apologize and pay a fine of twelve 
coins, or, if he still said it was true, he must fight the duel. 
To break a man's skull cost twelve coins, and twelve more 
for each fracture up to three, after which they were not 
counted. But before the full fine was paid, a piece of bone 
must come out which would make a sound when thrown 
into a shield twelve feet away. The fine, or weregeld, 
for taking a woman's life was 1 200 coins, while that for man 
was only 900, because he could defend himself while she 
could not. 

Personal Liberty. — The Germans had so high an opinion 
of life and liberty that they never imprisoned a man, and 
very rarely imposed the penalty of death, no matter what 
the crime was. A man's person was sacred among them. 

Laws Made for a Certain Territory. — When we Ameri- 
cans go from one state or country to another, we come 
every time under a new system of laws, for all laws to-day 
are made for a certain territory and limited to it. So we 
say our laws are territorial. 

Personal Laws. — But the Teutons, who roamed about 
so much, could not well have territorial laws. They made 
their laws once for a lifetime ; and no matter where they 
went, each man carried his own laws with him and expected 
to have them respected. A man's laws were always those 
of the tribe into which he was born. So the German thought 
that his laws were personal ; that is, a part of himself, and 
he could not change them or part with them if he wanted to 
do so. 



TEUTONS AT SCHOOL IN THE EMPIRE 85 

Two Law Codes Side by Side. — While he always claimed 
the right to be judged by his own laws, the Teuton gave to 
other people the same right. The Germans, when they 
entered the empire, settled down under their own unwritten 
laws, which they had brought from beyond the Rhine; 
but they allowed the Latins to continue under Roman laws. 
For a long, long time there existed side by side two sets, 
or codes of law, one for Teutons and another for Latins. 

Owning Land, New to Germans. — No sooner had they 
settled than each freeman began to own some land, which 
they had never thought of doing in the wild woods of Ger- 
many. They soon wished to build and to plant, to buy and 
sell, and to make wills so that their children might inherit 
their lands. They began also to have conflicts about land 
boundaries and about live stock belonging to one man stray- 
ing on the lands of another. Likewise in their business deal- 
ings they began to have disputes. Their own rude laws 
would not cover any of these cases. No such disputes 
had ever arisen in the forests of Germ.any, because there 
the people had not owned land. What should they do? 

Roman Law Triumphs. — They soon learned that the 
Roman laws, which had come down from centuries before, 
and which were written in great books, covered all these 
cases, with a fairness and justice that astonished the Ger- 
mans. They found also a class of learned men, or 
lawyers, whose business it was to explain these laws and 
apply them in the courts. They came to see how much 
better were the laws of Rome for all their new needs, and 
so they allowed their old Teutonic laws to die out gradu- 
ally and disappear. 

Roman Law an Aid to the Barbarians. — In this manner 
the great and wonderful system of law, which was Rome's 
best gift to mankind, lived on and became the foundation 



86 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

for the laws of many nations to-day. These noble laws 
spread abroad justice and fair deahng. They became a 
mighty aid to the Germans in their onward and upward 
struggle. The best teachers for our rude forefathers were, 
however, the monasteries, and of them we shall read in the 
next chapter. 

QUESTIONS 

I. What parts of the Roman empire were spared? 2. Why? 
3. Of what value were the things that were spared? 4. What valu- 
able things did the Teutons bring into the empire ? 5. How was 
the language changed? 6. How -did the Teutons and Latins com- 
pare in numbers? 7. Why had the Teutons such power? 8. Who 
was seizing the lands ? 9. What great work was Christianity doing 
for the empire ? 10. What was its effect upon the barbarians ? 
II. Discuss the punishments of this time. 12. What do they show? 
13. Discuss the laws. 14. Who made them? 15. Show how the 
Dark Ages were a good thing? 16. How had the church gained so 
much power as it had ? 



CHAPTER VI 
THE MONASTERIES 

The Monks as Teachers. — Through all the centuries 
of the Dark Ages, when the crude and barbarous Germans 
were waging bloody wars upon the Romans and upon one 
another, everything seemed hopelessly ruined. The teach- 
ers who saved most of the Roman skill and knowledge 
from utter destruction until the Germans were ready to take 
them up were the monks. 

Early Monks Godly Men. — The monks wanted none of 
the riches of this world. While other men in those dark 
days were killing and robbing their neighbors, the monks 
sought quiet, peaceful places away from the wrangling and 
the wickedness, where they might live lives of service to 
God. They were merciful and kind, pure and temperate ; 
and they wanted places in which to think, to work, and to 
pray. Thus there arose, shortly after the Germans took 
possessiorx of the empire, great monasteries, whose high 
walls shut out the wicked world. 

Nunneries. — These monasteries sprang up rapidly 
everywhere in Western Europe. Such a life appealed to 
women, too, and so there appeared a great many nunneries 
in Italy and in Gaul. Both monasteries and nunneries 
became a retreat for troubled and discouraged souls who 
were tired of the life about them, and who wished to get 
away from the sins and temptations of the outside world. 

St. Benedict and His Rules. — It was St. Benedict who 
founded the order of monks that became the model for 

87 



DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 




all others. St. Benedict succeeded well because of his 
strict rules. The monks who joined his order made three 

great vows ; always to re- 
main poor, to live chaste and 
pure lives, and promptly 
and strictly to obey their 
superiors. 

The Monk's Vow to Re- 
main Poor. — By the vow 
of poverty the monk denied 
himself all property of his 
own. The very pen with 
which he copied his pious 
books and the clothing that 
he wore belonged not to 
him, but to the monastery. 
No matter how hard he 
worked or what property came because of his efforts, it all 
went to his order. 

Not Allowed to Marry. — The vow of chastity bound the 
monk never to marry, and thus he was cut off forever from 
all the ties of home and children. In this way all his 
labors, his ambitions, were for his order. 

Obeying Their Abbots. — The vow of obedience to the 
abbot, the head of the monastery, was intended also to 
make the monk forget self. He no longer had even a will of 
his own, but he must look always to his superior, the abbot. 
How the Monks Worked. — St. Benedict made another 
rule, that the life of the monk should be spent in work, for 
he said, " To work is to pray." " A laboring monk is 
troubled by one devil ; an idle monk by a host of devils," 
said another. Every day so much time was spent in prayer, 
and so much in work with the hands. One order divided 



St. Benedict. 



THE MONASTERIES 89 

the day in this way : seven hours of manual labor, seven 
hours of sleep, seven hours of prayer ; two for study and 
one for the single daily meal, which consisted of two vege- 
tables and some fruit. They were to fast, too, but not more 
than they could bear. The monks wore only the plainest 




Cloister of a Monastery. 

clothing ; a shirt of undyed wool, which was covered, at 
work, with a long scapulary, and at church with a cowl. 

Gifts of Land for an Abbey. — In those days it was 
thought that the united prayers of monks could move the 
Ruler of Heaven; or if God were angry, the monks need 
only pray and all would be well. They could save a man 
from all punishment in the next world, no matter how 
wicked and sinful a Ufe he had lived here. So princes and 
nobles were glad to buy the continual prayers of the monks 
by a gift of land to the monastery — especially since a 
dense forest, a barren tract, or even a dismal swamp, which 
made the giver no poorer, would satisfy the monks. 



90 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



Where Abbeys were Built. — A swamp was considered 
a very good place to build a monastery, for it compelled 
the monks to work the harder to reclaim it and make it 

tillable. The harder, 
more painful, and un- 
attractive the work, 
the better suited it 
was thought to be for 
monks. Great monas- 
teries sprang up amid 
swamps and in the un- 
broken forests, upon 
land given ^by some 
pious prince or wealthy 
landowner. Here a site 
having been chosen for 
the monastery, the 
monks set about to 
clear the forests or to 
drain the swgimp. As 
the years passed, more 
and more land was 
thus prepared for wav- 
ing crops. 

The Christian Colony. — Each Benedictine monastery 
was a little world in itself, surrounded and shut off from the 
outer world by pahsades and moats and turreted walls. 
Many were the buildings about a cloister, sometimes forty 
or fifty. There was the abbot's stately house with its 
kitchen and storerooms ; there were the schools for out- 
siders, inns for the convenience of travelers, infirmaries for 
the aged and the poor who came for alms, and the dis- 
pensaries, where medicines were given free to those who 




Plan of an Abbey. 



THE MONASTERIES 



91 



needed them. There were also the dom church, the Hbrary, 
and the workshops. The workmen had their own abodes, 
hidden by hedges and walls. 

A Sort of Hospital. — A building was set apart for the 
letting of blood, which played so large a part in the practice 
of medicine in those days. In some monasteries the monks 
were bled all round at stated periods to tame their unruly 
passions. 

Different Kinds of Work of an Abbey. — The monks in 
an abbey numbered several score, often even several hun- 
dred. Every man was expected to spend his life in doing 
good. Whatever talent he had he used for the good of his 
order and of his fellow-men. In their church they met to 
ask for strength from on high to do their work as Chris- 
tianizers and civiUzers of mankind. Then they went forth 
to work at farming, gardening, carpentering, writing, doctor- 
ing, teaching in the schools, or preaching to the heathen 
around them. 

Good Examples to the District. — The people came from 
far and near to gape at the busy workers and to carry home 
the new ideas. So, wherever an abbey appeared, the sur- 
rounding country quickly learned its lessons and began to 
improve. 

The Germans Reached Through Farming. — It was 
through agriculture that the new and crude Germans could 
best be Hfted to a higher plane of hving, because the Ger- 
mans Hved at first only on farms. So the monks became 
good teachers, by example, of how to raise the best crops, 
how to drain swamps, build dikes, and how to breed better 
cattle, sheep, and hogs. If illness broke out in the com- 
munity, the monks hastened with their remedies ; for they 
Vere great healers, and distributed their medicines free to 
all who sought them. 



DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



Monastic Schools. — The schools connected with the 
monastery were of two kinds : one for those who would 
later join the order, and the other for the sons of the neigh- 
boring nobles and freemen. Reading, writing, and arith- 
metic were the chief subjects taught. Pupils were shown 
how to imitate the letters of the alphabet by crossing and 
curving their fingers. 

Saving the Ancient Learning. — One of the chief labors of 
the monks, and the one for which we should thank them 
most, was the copying of old manuscripts. In this way, 
alone, have we come into possession of the knowledge and 
learning of the Greeks and Romans. For the books of 
those early times, as we know, were written either upon 
papyrus or upon parchment, which is sheepskin. These 
parchment rolls decayed and fell to pieces ; and if they had 
not been copied, all the treasures of Greek and Roman 

learning would have 
been lost. In every 
monastery there was 
a library and a writ- 
ing table. 

Toilsome Labor. — 
Many a manuscript 
copied in the tenth 
century is still clear 
and legible. The 
greatest care was 
taken in the writing 
of the words and es- 
pecially in starting 
the page with a beautiful initial letter. Some copyists 
found their work so tiresome that they sometimes wrote 
on the margins that they were glad that darkness had at 




A Monk at Work. 



THE MONASTERIES 93 

last fallen, or that the work was ended. Still it was a joy 
to many a monk to see the library of his monastery grow. 
Some manuscripts were bound in leather and beautifully 
adorned. 

People Loved the Monks. — The saintHness of the true 
monk gave him a sacred character in the eyes of the common 
people. They looked up to him as missionaries are looked 
up to to-day, when they do their work well. When a noble 
abbot or a monk of exceptional goodness died, he was 
mourned for by thousands who had received from him some 
kindly service or noble lesson. 

Honest Labor. — Another debt that we owe the monks 
is for teaching the world the duty and dignity of work. In 
ancient times nearly all manual labor was put upon slaves. 
Both the Romans and the Greeks held themselves above it. 
The monk set a noble example of the duty of honest labor, 
and the world to-day is according more and more honor to 
the man who toils. 

Monastery Self-supporting. — The abbot divided the labor 
among the monks, and all the needs of the monastery were 
supplied on the spot. Each was a model farm, following 
the plan of a Roman villa. Every monastery had its own 
tanner, shoemaker, and saddler, its blacksmith and worker 
in iron, its carpenter and mason, sheep tender and farmers. 
The clothing of the monks was made by their own hands, 
from wool grown upon the backs of their own sheep. Some 
spun the yarn, others wove the cloth, and still others dyed 
it the desired color; then it was at last ready for the tailor. 
The wheat and other grain were grown upon their own 
lands and ground at their own mill. They made wine 
from the fruit of their vineyards, and they even brewed 
their own beer. In this way skill in the different trades was 
kept alive through the Dark Ages. 



94 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Commerce. — The monks sometimes had a surplus of 
products, which it was thought best to sell. In some 
cases they needed to purchase raw materials for their in- 
dustry. And so they came into commercial relation with 
the outside world. Wine and woolen stuffs were sold and 
sent to other cities. In this way new arts and new knowl- 
edge were brought in. 

Good Roads Needed. — The monasteries came to take 
an interest in roads, and some religious houses were founded 
for the very purpose of repairing roads and rebuilding bridges. 
Such work was considered pious. Large abbeys on some 
rivers had great numbers of carrying vessel^, while the 
peasants on their estates were required to furnish oxen and 
wagons for land transportation. The monasteries often 
built up a prosperous trade and became wealthy. Later 
they were the chief objects of the plundering raids of the 
Danes and Northmen. 

Monks Kept Art Alive. — The monks not only taught 
better methods of agriculture, and kept alive ancient learn- 
ing; but they preserved some interest in the fine arts, 
although their drawing consisted of little more than 
childish scrawls. They also composed hymns that the 
church will never cease to sing. They were the leaders and 
guides in all good things, until the Germans were ready to 
take up the work and carry it on. 

A Remarkable Monk. — Some monks were skillful in 
doing many things. In the time of Charles the Fat of 
France, a certain monk, Totilo by name, was famous as a 
preacher and teacher, a poet and a musical composer, and 
yet was able to turn his hand to painting, sculpture, or 
architecture. Charles cursed those who had made a monk 
of such a brilHant man, because he would hke to have had 
him as an ornament to his court. 



THE MONASTERIES 



95 



Teaching Everjrthing. — The monk knew his Bible well, 
and he taught it to the people. Those who learned to read 
at the abbey learned to read their Bibles. Those who 
never learned to read, the monk taught by sermons and 
pictures. The Bible was not forbidden to the people till 
later centuries when the church and clergy were corrupt. 
In a word the old monk missionary taught all that he 




Melrose Abbey. 

knew to all who would learn. In return he was loved and 
respected by the rough people of his day. 

Shelter Towns. — Under the shadow of monasteries 
towns sprang up, and in these towns were taken m.any 
steps toward freedom for the laboring classes. 

Becoming Wealthy. — The monasteries gradually be- 
came the great landowners, and the abbots became very 
powerful. One way in which the later corrupt abbots ob- 
tained land was by persuading sinners and weak persons 
to secure the safety of their souls in the next world by leav- 



96 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

ing land to the monasteries in return for the prayers and 
masses of the monks. Many pious men and women left 
gifts to their favorite abbeys, and since an abbey had no 
children among whom to divide its wealth, it never lost any 
of it, and more money was always coming in. 

Spoiled by Riches. — The monasteries came, in later 
times, to own boundless forests and vast fertile tracts on 
which farmers liked to hve, because of the low rents that 
they were allowed to pay to the abbots. So the abbots 
became very wealthy, and with riches came all the com- 
forts and luxuries that money would buy. The monks 
no longer toiled in the fields, for the land was rented to 
farmers. Instead of a dark, cheerless cell and hours of 
labor with the pen, the monks now lived lives of ease. 
Naturally they came to be wicked and corrupt. 

Abbeys Refuse to Pay Taxes — Destroyed. — The mon- 
asteries claimed to be independent of every power except 
that of the church, so they would not pay any taxes to the 
new governments that arose on the ruins of the empire. 
After several centuries, these abbeys, with their lazy and 
worthless monks, had ceased to serve any good purpose ; 
and since the governments needed taxes from the wide- 
extended lands of the abbeys, these were at last destroyed, 
and their lands were taken by the states. Ruins of them 
may be seen everywhere in Europe to-day. 

Four Friends of the Teutons. — We have read about 
four great helps that assisted in raising our German fore- 
fathers to the level of the Greeks and Romans, (i) There 
was the splendid Latin language, which enabled the Ger- 
mans to talk with the more civilized Latins. Through 
this their barbarous eyes were opened to many new ideas. 
(2) The matchless system of Roman laws did much to quiet 
disputes and to bring about peace, to encourage the Germans 



THE MONASTERIES 97 

to cease fighting and to settle down to quiet farm life. 
(3) The monks kept alive knowledge and crafts and turned 
these good things over to the Germans when they were ready 
to learn. (4) The church, with its noble bishops and priests, 
was the greatest aid of all. It checked the wild life and 
habits of the Germans, taught peace and kindness, and held 
out the rewards of heaven to those who lived righteous 
lives. 

QUESTIONS 

I. Describe the monasteries. 2. Where were they built ? 3. Why ? 
4. What property had they? 5. How did they gain great power? 
6. What rules governed the monks' lives? 7. What work did the 
monks do ? 8. How did they dress ? g. What was their attitude 
toward work? 10. Describe their schools. 11. How did they in- 
fluence commerce ? 12. What was their influence upon the Teutons ? 
13. What great wealth did the monasteries acquire ? 14. How ? 
15. What was the result? 16. What brought about the destruc- 
tion of the monasteries ? 



CHAPTER VII 
ENGLAND AND THE SAXONS 

England Robbed of Her Strength. — England, as you 
remember, was also a part of the Roman empire; let us see 
what happened there when Rome fell. The Roman gov- 
ernment, for years, had been enHsting the young men of 
England in her legions. They were sent to the Rhine- 
Danube boundary or elsewhere, and never came back. 
This robbed the island of its best blood and its fighting 
strength. The legions stationed in England probably had 
been enlisted in Gaul, Spain, or Africa. 

Wild Picts Scale the Wall. - When the Goths and 
Vandals burst over the Rhine-Danube boundary, Rome 
hastily called away from England every soldier to help 
turn back the tide of barbarians from the capital. This 
left England at the mercy of the wild Picts and Scots, who 
quickly climbed over the Roman wall, which extended 
across England, and began to loot and burn, unchecked. 
The Romanized Britons could not hold their own because 
they had depended so long upon the Roman legions. 
Moreover, they could not act together because of 
jealousy. 

The Britons Ask the Romans for Help. — The Britons 
finally wrote to the Roman general, iEtius, begging him 
to come back and help them against the wild Picts and 
Scots. This was their message : — 

" To iEtius, thrice consul, the groans of the Britons. 
The barbarians drive us to the sea, the sea drives us back to 

98 



ENGLAND AND THE SAXONS 99 

the barbarians ; between them we are exposed to two kinds 
of death: we are either slain or drowned." 

But .^^Ltius had his hands full with fighting the Goths 
and Vandals, and he turned a deaf ear to the prayer of the 
Britons. 

Barbarians in Front and Rear. — The Britons were also 
attacked along the coasts. The North Sea and the Eng- 
lish Channel swarmed with heathen Saxon pirates. The 
Saxons were Teutons also, and the most cruel of all the 
German tribes. They had hved around the Baltic, far 
from the empire, and had received none of its gentle and 
civilizing influence. The Saxon pirates sported about in 
the North Sea in large, flat-bottomed boats. These were 
framed of light timber with sides and upper works of wicker, 
covered with strong hides to keep out the waves. Because 
the boats were so light and could ply on such shallow 
water, the bold pirates easily proceeded far up the smaller 
rivers. Then stealing a yoke of oxen, they transported the 
Hght boats by oxcart to the headwaters of another river, driv- 
ing off cattle and carrying away rich plunder as they went. 

Saxon Sea Rovers Love the Sea. — They were skillful 
sailors, much at home upon the sea. The poorest of their 
sailors could handle an oar, rear a sail, or act as captain of 
a vessel. These savage Saxons rejoiced in the appearance 
of a tempest, because it concealed their own movements, 
and, at the same time, scattered the fleets of their enemy. 

Rob, Burn, and Escape. — In their swift barks they 
swooped down upon any unguarded district very suddenly, 
and were off swiftly before an army could be summoned. 
The next day they appeared in another district far away, 
burning, slaying, and plundering. Gathering their spoil 
upon the shore, they sacrificed to Odin a tenth of their cap- 
tives, slaughtered the stolen cattle and hogs, and vanished 



lOO DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



in safety. In this manner they terrorized the entire British 
coast during the whole of the summer season, disappearing 
upon the approach of winter to return with the birds in 
the spring. 

The Saxons Come to Stay. — After a time the Saxons 
no longer invaded the island for mere plunder. They 
now sought to get a permanent foothold in the land. 
They built strongholds, in which they collected their booty 




Saxon Ships. 

and from which they made dashes farther inland. Against 
such swarms of speedy and warlike pirates, the British 
chiefs could do but little, especially as they did not act 
together, but were often engaged in petty quarrels among 
themselves. 

An Old Legend. — At last, according to a legend, Vorti- 
gern, king of Kent, who had raised himself above other 
British chiefs by his bravery and wisdom, hit upon a shrewd 
plan. Since the Picts troubled him by land and the Saxons 
by sea, Vortigern said to himself, " I shall do well if I can 
set these robbers the one against the other." So in 449 he 



ENGLAND AND THE SAXONS loi 

called in Hengist and Horsa, two chiefs of the Saxon pirates, 
and promised to give them the island of Thanet, near the 
mouth of the Thames, if they would help to drive out the 
wild Picts. Hengist and Horsa gladly came in three ships. 
They at once pushed back the Picts, and settled upon 
Thanet. 

Too Many Friends. — For some years they were content. 
Then they sent word to their kinsmen, the Angles, telHng 
them of the worthlessness of the Britons and of the richness 
of their lands. At that there came swarms of Angles and 
Jutes, offering to fight for the Britons and to take land for 
their pay. Their offer was refused, because the Britons 
had begun to fear them more than the Picts. The new- 
comers, therefore, angry at being refused, attacked the 
Britons themselves. 

The Fatherland. — The Angles and Saxons came from 
the wild Baltic shores, which were overgrown with big tim- 
ber and thick scrub down to the water's edge. Their far- 
reaching woodlands were broken only by shallow lakes and 
thick swamps, with scattered clearings and barbarian camps. 
The only highways were the rivers. 

England a Golden Land to the Teutons. — The country 
upon which they now had set their eyes and hearts was 
largely cleared of forests and yielded good crops. Along 
the rivers were long meadows, bordered by fine hill pastures 
with herds of cattle and flocks of sheep of many breeds. 
There were herb gardens and orchards and vineyards about 
the houses, and broad wheat fields of many acres, produc- 
ing more grain than the island could use. The land was 
tilled with improved Roman tools — iron-coltered plows, 
iron hoes, picks, and spades. 

There were ironworks, mines of tin and lead, quarries, 
potteries, brick and tile kilns, and glassworks. Scattered 



I02 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

over the land were more than thirty walled towns and many 
military camps or stations.- These were knit together by 
good, well-graded, stone-made roads, serviceable all the 
year through for men, horses, and wagons. 

The rivers were bridged, or where fordable, they were 
staked and stone-bedded. Along the roads were farm- 
houses or Roman villas with their farms tilled by slave or 
serf labor. The ports and harbors were safe and conven- 
ient, and a constant trade was carried on with the continent 
during the summer months. The Britons sold and sent 
out grain, metal, jet, slaves, hounds, and horses. Is it 
any wonder that England appeared like a golden land to 
the wild and savage Teutons? 

The Saxons Advance Slowly. — The Jutes, Angles, and 
Saxons were not united, but were broken into many tribes, 
each acting for itself. Their advance was therefore slow, 
with many victories and many defeats, for the Britons 
disputed every foot of ground. They would not tamely 
submit to be slaves to the wild Saxons. The sword was 
bare for a hundred and fifty years. But the barbarians, 
though often defeated, never retreated far. Little by little 
the land was taken. The Britons fought behind the walls 
of their towns until the Saxons laid waste the land, cut off 
all supplies, and starved them out. As the country was 
overrun by the enemy, one road after another was blocked, 
and traffic ceased. Thus the trade, which alone kept the 
city people from starving, was entirely stopped. When 
food supplies were cut off, the cities melted away. The 
men went to join the army of defense, while the women and 
children followed afoot, travehng by night and probably 
through the woods to escape the fierce Teutons. 

What Became of the Britons. — The Saxons did not de- 
mand one-third or two-thirds of the land, as did the Goths 



ENGLAND AND THE SAXONS 



103 



and Franks on the continent, but they took it all. What 
became of the Romanized Britons or Welsh we do not know 
with certainty. No records of those dark days are left to 
us — no books, no writings, save such a brief fact about a 
battle as, " There was not a Briton left." Just what hap- 
pened will never be known. In the eastern part of England 
the Britons were probably nearly all killed off, while farther 
west there was perhaps a sprinkling of them left. Those 
who were spared were made slaves. They became the only 
teachers left to the savage 
Saxons. There are signs 
that some of the Britons 
were driven to the caves of 
Yorkshire for shelter from 
the fierce invaders. One of 
these caves contains bones, 
household implements, and 
other traces of the Britons. 
The Saxons Make a 
Clean Sweep. — The Angles 
and Saxons, fresh from the 
sea and pirate life, or from 

the bleak fiats and sand hills of Denmark, knew nothing of 
the great Roman civilization, nothing of city Hfe, nothing 
of Roman law. They knew nothing of Christianity, the 
Roman rehgion, and they had neither reverence nor respect 
for it. So, wherever they got a foothold, those heathen 
Saxons made a clean sweep of everything. Not only did the 
Britons disappear, except those who were made slaves, but 
everything the Romans had built up perished by fire and 
sword. Great cities one by one were stormed, fired, and 
abandoned. Where were once splendid cities, were now 
fallen towers, desecrated altars, broken walls ; and the un- 




The Saxon Tool and Weapon. 



I04 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

buried bodies of the slain were left to the wild beasts and 
birds. 

London a Shell. — " There was nothing left in the city 
of London except the deserted homes, the churches, the 
forum, the bridge, and the wall. In the port and below 
the bridge there were no ships, on the wharf there were no 
goods, in the market place there was no trade, in the streets 
there were no people. The deserted city, all day long, 
presented the appearance of a city at sunrise, when the 
folk are asleep in their peaceful beds. And, as with London, 
so with other towns ; they were ruined and deserted ; all 
over the country these ruins stood dotted about. Here 
and there, perhaps, a town survived." But the people 
who knew how to live in cities were nowhere to be seen. 

Destruction in the Country. — The magnificent villas 
in the country were burned down, the splendid network of 
stone-made highways, which had made it possible for all 
England to reach the continent with valuable streams of 
trade, were neglected. The bridges were down, and trade 
and travel were thus cut off. Towns and cities, if any had 
been spared from Saxon fire and sword, now crumbled away 
for lack of trade. The ironworks, the mines for tin and 
lead, the quarries, potteries, brick and tile kilns, and glass- 
works were silent and in ruins. The herb gardens, or- 
chards, and vineyards were laid waste. 

The Language 'Disappears. — The Saxons rooted out 
and destroyed the Welsh language of the lower rural people^ 
and the Latin of the villas, towns, and cities. Both lan- 
guages were foreign to the Saxons, who hated them equally. 
Laws and schools were swept away utterly. 

Christianity Gone. — The pagan Saxons were also bent 
on driving away all traces of Christianity. Goths and 
Franks on the continent had bowed before Christian bishops 



ENGLAND AND THE SAXONS 105 

and had respected Christian churches. But the fierce 
Angles and Saxons hated Christianity as much as they did 
the Britons, and they resolved to drive both from the land 
that was to be their home. The religion of Odin and Thor 
took the place of the religion of Christ, and the country 
became a heathen country. 

In the death of Christianity there was left no bridge for 
the Saxons into civilized life, no priest to act as go-between, 
no monks to show better ways of living. The very days of 
the week were renamed after the heathen gods : The Sun's 
day, the Moon's day, Tin's day, Woden's day, Thor's day, 
/ and Frigu's day. Thus the Anglo-Saxons became the one 
pure and unmixed German nation that arose upon the 
wreck of Rome. 

How the Angles and Saxons Settled. — The Saxons 
hated cities and walled places. They preferred to settle 
upon clearings and homesteads often far apart, as they 
had done in the wilds of Germany. This scattered farm 
life kept them for many, many years from uniting to form 
one people. There were the East Saxons of Essex, the 
Middle Saxons of Middlesex, and the West Saxons of 
Wessex. The Angles also were divided into several na- 
tions, each with its separate territory and king. So when, 
four hundred years later, they were attacked by the Danes, 
the Anglo-Saxon nations were not united and we can easily 
judge what happened. 

The Casting of Lots. — The Germans divided the land 
of England by casting lots. A stretch of country was 
divided into parcels according to the number of villas, or 
estates, and these were given out by drawing lots. Around 
the ruins of a Roman city there were probably a number of 
lots. A barbarian noble or thane took several, while a 
small knot of brothers or kinsmen, drew but one. 



io6 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

The Roman Villa. — Buildings, if not burned down in 
the raids preceding the settlement, were usually left to 
fall into decay. Sometimes they were pulled down, and 
the material used to build up a pigsty or to repair a road. 
In a few cases they may have been taken over as the dwelling 
of a Saxon settler. Thus there was left scarely a trace of 
Roman civilization, save here and there a heap of ruins. 

England Becomes a Heathen Land. — We have read 
how the heathen Saxons utterly destroyed all churches and 
abbeys in Britain, wiped Christianity away, and brought 
in the religion of Thor and Odin. We remember how the 
just laws of Rome were put aside, and the splendid Latin 
language and literature were lost. Much of the knowledge 
of raising crops was forgotten. The skill in building, the 
blowing of glass, and the work in metals and handicraft — 
everything that a thousand years of civilized life had 
developed — was swept away ; and Britain became the 
heathen land of the Saxons. The country was named 
England after the Angles, and the language, Anglo-Saxon, 
became the mother of our English speech. 

The English a Pure Teutonic People. — The Angles and 
Saxons transferred to their new island home the rude laws 
and customs, the language and religion of the German 
wilderness. No tribe of Teutons was so much given to 
robbery and bloodshed, to fierce and revengeful family 
feuds, as the Anglo-Saxons. If a man were murdered, his 
relatives took a speedy vengeance. While the Saxon war- 
riors swept away everything that the Romans had built up 
in England, still they brought with them a young and vigor- 
ous race, with fresh blood, strong muscles, and keen minds, 
which, in the future, was to do great deeds for the world. 
' These freemen of the German wilderness had a love of 
liberty, and a proud spirit that refused to obey any laws 



ENGLAND AND THE SAXONS 107 

except those that they made themselves. They were bold 
and brave, willing to work, to think, and to learn, and their 
new island home was an ideal place in which to build a 
great nation. We shall soon see them outstripping their 
kinsmen on the continental ruins of Rome. Of all the Ger- 
man nations who settled in the empire, the Anglo-Saxons, 
alone, held to their language, their customs, and their laws. 
These, they thought, were a good foundation to build upon ; 
and so they were. 

A Little Saved. — In places a few Roman slaves and 
serfs escaped the sword, nobody knows how many ; and 
these may have saved for the rude Saxons a little Roman 
knowledge and skill in weaving, in the raising of grain, 
fruit, and vegetables, in the making of weapons and iron 
farm tools, and in the building of ships. This was the 
only knowledge or skill that the heathen Saxon tribes could 
then use or appreciate. 

The Low Beginning. — From this low stage our Anglo- 
Saxon forefathers began their growth and their rise toward 
civilized living. For a hundred years and more, England 
remained a heathen land with the petty tribes fighting one 
another. At last in 597 a very important thing happened, 
'for Christianity was then brought back to England by mis- 
sionaries from the pope. 

Saxon Slaves in Rome. — An old story says that a few 
years before this time some boys, with white faces, fair skins, 
and beautiful eyes and hair, appeared for sale at the slave 
market in Rome. As it happened, a Roman deacon, named 
Gregory, saw those handsome slave boys and asked their 
race, for he admired them very much. He was told they 
were Angles from the heathen country of England. He 
declared that they looked more hke angels and that such 
fine people ought to be saved from paganism. 



lo8 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Augustine Sent to England. — Some years later Gregory 
became pope, and as head of the church, he organized a 
body of monks to go to England as missionaries. Augus- 
tine was their leader. He passed through France and ob- 
tained some helpers who could speak Anglo-Saxon. They 
crossed the channel, and in 597 landed in Kent, a petty 
kingdom of England. 

Augustine Kindly Received. — Augustine easily obtained 
a hearing because the king of Kent had married a Christian 
woman from Paris, named Bertha. She had taken a 
Christian bishop with her to her heathen home. So when 
Augustine landed, the king of Kent received him kindly, 
but only in the open air, for the king feared Augustine 
might be able to exert some magical power indoors. Augus- 
tine and his companions came to the meeting solemnly 
chanting songs and bearing a silver cross and a picture of 
Christ painted upon a board. He preached to the king, 
and was given permission to teach and preach throughout 
the kingdom. After a time the king of Kent and many of 
his people became Christians. 

Christ Triumphs over Thor and Odin. — This was but 
the beginning, for gradually monasteries appeared in many 
places ; and the entire island was slowly won back to 
Christianity. The old Teutons were very unwiUing to 
give up Thor and Odin and their drunken feasts, but Chris- 
tianity brought such hopeful and comforting messages to 
the slave and to the poor and miserable, including pro- 
tection against the proud and the mighty, that they gladly 
adopted it. All classes were at last won over to Christ by 
his noble teachings. 

The Church a Civilizer. — In many ways the church 
became a leader and an example to the Saxons. It taught 
those rough people new habits, new laws, and manners. 



ENGLAND AND THE SAXONS 



109 



It called gluttony and drunkenness sins, it forbade the 
killing of little children, it taught men that it was wrong 
to divorce a good wife, wrong to be cruel to a serf or slave. 
The church denounced revenge, it forbade work on Sun- 
days. It taught that peace is better than war, that slavery 
is wrong, and that work is honorable. 

The Church on Trade and Language. — The church, 
with its pilgrimages to Rome, brought England into con- 
tact with the continent, where the Anglo-Saxons, received 
many new ideas. Commerce also sprang up with the con- 
tinent, and the Saxons traded for good things to eat and 
wear and better tools to work with. 

Since the bishops and priests from all England often met 
in councils, they came gradually to use a mixture of the 
dialects of the Angles and the Saxons, and in time Anglo- 
Saxon was spoken by the churchmen. The New Testament 
was printed in this Anglo-Saxon, and the people all came to 
use it, for they and their priests must speak so as to under- 
stand one another. Monasteries grew up in many places, and 
the monks showed the Saxons better ways of raising crops, 
how to drain swamps, and how to weave better clothing. 

A Help Toward Union. — The people all belonged now to 
one church with an archbishop at its head, and they gradu- 
ally came to think more about having one strong kingdom 
instead of so rnany weak ones. 

No Need of Roads. — The Roman roads in Britain, like 
those on the continent, were too well built to be wholly 
ruined by neglect. Portions of them may still be seen to- 
day, hard and serviceable. But in the old Saxon days they 
were broken through in places, bridges were down, and no- 
where were they repaired. The towns that they had for- 
merly connected were in ruins, because trade was gone, and 
there was little need for roads. 



no DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Supplying Their Own Wants. — The people Hved the 
simple farm or village life, supplying about all their own 
needs. There were only two articles that they could not 
everywhere produce for themselves. These were iron for 
weapons and implements, and salt for daily use. So iron 
and salt were brought in by traders. 

Cities. — Along the coast where the harbors were good 
were clusters of buildings, which were the beginnings of 
future cities. Near the large abbeys, towns were also 
starting up. But the Saxons hated cities and walled places, 
and lived almost entirely in the country. 

The Country. — Nearly all the country was waste and 
woodlands, where roamed the great herds of swine for 
acorns and nuts. There was some pasture land for cattle, 
horses, and sheep. Along the streams were meadow lands 
with homestead after homestead clear of brush and thicket. 
About each homestead were a ditch and a fence, and near 
by were acres of plowland used to grow wheat, rye, and 
barley. Here could be seen great ox-teams dragging the 
plows — eight oxen to each. Along the streams were mills 
for grinding corn. Upon the coast were well-to-do salt- 
men with their salt pans and fishermen washing their nets. 
Everywhere the lord's ofhcer, called a reeve, was gathering 
his dues, or rent, of grain, fish, or salt. The chief build- 
ings in the village were the Lord's hall, the little church, 
and the shop, where rang the blacksmith's anvil. The 
woodlands echoed with hound and hunter's horn. 

A Yeoman's New Home. — The Saxon gentleman or 
yeoman's homestead was made up of several buildings. 
The long, timber-roofed hall, the bellhouse, the big gate, 
and the moat about the stockade were the signs of a gen- 
tleman's house. There were bowers, or homesteads for the 
gentleman and his family, and some dozen or score of rush- 



ENGLAND AND THE SAXONS 



III 



thatched huts for the serfs and bondsmen. Among them 
were seen the storehouse and the stacks, also the horse 
shed and wagon shed. 

Women Slaves. — The Saxon lord had everything that 
he needed made in his own house. Women slaves, who 
were bought and sold like cattle, spun yarn and wove cloth 
of linen and wool ; they ground flour from various kinds 




The Residence of a Saxon Nobleman. 

of grain in hand mills or stone querns, and made bread in 
round, flat cakes ; they pickled, smoked, and salted down 
meat, and made sausages ; they made ale, mead, and wine. 
Slaves on the Farm. — On the farm were many laborers, 
also slaves. There were beekeepers, swineherds, cow- 
herds, oxherds, shepherds, cheesewrights, and barn- 
keepers. From an old English dialogue we read the duties 
of some of the slaves. The plowman says : " I work hard ; 
I go out at daybreak, driving the oxen to the field, and I 



112 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

yoke them to the plow. Be it never so stark winter I dare 
not linger at home for awe of my lord ; but having yoked 
my oxen, and fastened the share and coulter, every day 
I must plow a full acre or more. I have a boy driving 
the oxen with a goad iron, who is hoarse with cold and 
shouting ; I have to lill the oxen's mangers with hay 
and water them. Mighty hard work it is for I am not 
free." 

The Shepherd Complains in These Words. — "In the 
first of the morning I drive my sheep to pasture," says the 
shepherd, " and stand over them in heat and cold with 
my dogs, lest the wolves swallow them up ; and I lead them 
back to their folds, and milk them twice a day, and their 
folds I move ; and I make cheese and butter, and I am true 
to my lord." The oxherd says : " When the plowman 
unyokes the oxen, I lead them to pasture, and all night I 
stand over them, waking against thieves ; and then again 
in the early morning I betake them, well-filled and watered, 
to the plowman." 

Serfs. — Serfs were slowly getting some rights. Some 
were bound to the soil and could not be sold unless the land 
was sold with them. They paid rents and worked part 
time for the lord. Still this was much better than slavery, 
for they could rear their famiUes in peace. 

Laws Unwritten. — The laws of the early Anglo-Saxons 
were, of course, unwritten. They were merely repeated 
from memory by a " lawman," but they were looked upon 
as divine and not to be changed. As times grew better 
and new needs arose, the " lawman " and the folkmoot, 
a gathering of the freemen, gradually softened or changed 
the rude laws without knowing that they did so. In this 
way the laws were slowly growing better without any- 
body's knowing it. 



ENGLAND AND THE SAXONS 113 

The Effect of the Church on Laws. — When the church 
came, bringing along written church laws, the time was soon 
ripe to write down the common laws ; and after this was 
done, the laws ceased to change and to grow of themselves, 
for they were written down in black and white. The people 
had to give up the idea that laws are divine and not to be 
changed. They now set about to change them purposely. 
As the years passed the people wished to do away with the 
crudest laws. Thus the Anglo-Saxon laws began to grow 
along lines of reason and common sense. 

English Laws Spread. — - In this way English laws came 
to be very different from those governing countries that 
copied after the laws of Rome. Millions of people, not 
only in England and America, but in Canada, South Africa, 
and Australia are to-day living under laws that grew out 
of the common law of these old Anglo-Saxons. 

English Ruled Themselves. — The village, with the 
surrounding farm lands, woods, and waste grounds, made 
up what came to be called the township. The yeomen, 
or freemen, of a township gathered at midsummer, and in 
spring and fall, under the sacred oak in a meeting called a 
moot. This meeting gave forth the laws and held court 
for the trial of law-breakers. So every freeman had his 
say in making the laws and in judging those who broke 
them. 

The Saxons Elect Their King. — Among the early Ger- 
man tribes the kings were always elected by the freemen. 
They usually chose the eldest son of the king to succeed 
to the throne ; but amid such a warlike society, it very often 
happened that the king's sons all fell in battle before their 
father. In that case the freemen were forced to choose a 
king. This custom of electing kings was always kept in 
mind by the Anglo-Saxons. They held that a king got 



114 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

his right to rule from the people ; and that if he ruled badly, 
the people had a right to depose him and elect another. 
This right to elect and dethrone kings was forgotten by 
the Franks, Goths, and Lombards on the continent, and 
their rulers often became tyrants. 

Wessex the Chief Kingdom. — Several shires or counties 
made a Httle kingdom that was ruled over by a king and 
a body of nobles called the Witan, who advised the king 
and helped make the laws for the kingdom. These king- 
doms were many, and they were continually at war with 
one another. The stronger people with the best kings got 
the upper hand, and so the smaller kingdoms were swallowed 
by them. Then, again, the larger ones fought it out, until 
Wessex, or the kingdom of the West Saxons, proved itself 
the strongest of all. 

QUESTIONS 

Britain — i. Who lived in Britain before the Romans came? 
2. What robbed Britain of her strength? 3. What troubles was she 
having ? 4. Where did she beg for help ? 5. Why ? 6. Where 
was the home of the Saxons? 7. What kind of a people were they? 
8. How do you account for these characteristics ? 9. How did they 
bother Britain? 10. Where in Britain did they settle? 11. Who 
were the two leaders ? 12. Why was it easy for the Saxons to subdue 
the Britons? 13. Was it fortunate or unfortunate for the Britons? 
14. Who were the Angles? 15. Discuss their coming to Britain. 
16. The fact that Britain is called England, or Angleland to-day, tells us 
what ? 17. Why did the Saxons and Angles like Britain ? 18. Who 
were the Jutes? 19. Why did it take the barbarians so long to 
conquer Britain ? 20. How was Britain changed by these invasions ? 
21. What became of the Britons? 22. Describe London after the 
invasions. 23. Show the effect of the invasions upon the language, in- 
dustries, laws, schools, commerce, and rehgion. 24. How were the 
Anglo-Saxons different from the Goths? 25. Why did England become 
purely German ? 26. How did the Anglo-Saxons settle in Britain ? 
27. What kind of government did they have ? 28. How was the 



ENGLAND AND THE SAXONS 115 

land divided ? 29. Who were the yeomen ? 30. Describe the 
homestead. 31. What good quahties are found in these Anglo- 
Saxons? 32. How did the Anglo-Saxons really make England 
their home, as to language, laws, religion, and customs? ^^. What 
little of the civilization was saved ? 34. How ? 35. What did these 
barbarians need most ? 36. Why? 37. What would it do for them ? 
38. When did Britain become England ? 39. How did England 
become Christian ? 40. Who sent Augustine to England ? 41. What 
helpers had he? 42. What kind of reception did he receive? 
43. What work did he do ? 44. Show the effect of Christianity upon 
England. 

Condition of the Country — 45. Where were the cities ? 
46. Why ? 47. What trade was there ? 48. What kind of roads had 
they ? 49. What industries were there ? 50. Why was the black- 
smith so important? 51. What animals had they? 52. What 
grains were raised? 53. What was the work of the slaves? 
54. Who were the serfs ? 55. How were they different from slaves ? 
56. How had English law grown ? 57. In what way had the church 
affected the laws? 58. How was the village governed? 59. How 
was the county governed ? 60. How was the king chosen ? 61. How 
had his power increased ? 62. In what way did the government of 
England differ from that on the continent ? 63. How do you ac- 
count for this difference ? 



CHAPTER VIII 
ALFRED THE GREAT AND THE DANES 

Saxon England No Longer Heathen. — Since England 
had again become a Christian country, with monasteries 
and Christian priests in every Httle kingdom, the people 
were fast learning all the lessons that the monks and the 
priests could teach — better ways of tilling the soil, better 
ways of Hving, better education, better laws. They were 
beginning to trade more, and thus they were bringing in 
from the continent many new ideas, new tools, and new 
luxuries of dress and food. They were fighting less, since 
the petty little states were being swallowed up in the larger 
kingdoms, with Wessex the strongest of all. 

A New Enemy. — While the Anglo-Saxons were thus 
making long strides forward in civilization, and the future 
was looking bright, a new and fierce enemy appeared. 
Warrior pirates began to be seen in the English Channel 
in great ships. These ships were sometimes seventy feet 
long, but with a depth of little more than three feet, so that 
they could ply on very shallow waters. Besides they were 
built for speed. They were propelled by sails, and when 
the wind was low, by fifty or sixty oars. On their sails 
were painted dragons or other monsters. 

The Danes. — These swift vessels were filled with bold 
warriors well-armed with swords and spears, with battle- 
axes, bows and arrows, and shields. They carried no food, 
but landed at sunset and robbed some farm of its sheep and 
cattle, then they feasted and slept on the shore, and at day- 

116 



ALFRED THE GREAT AND THE DANES 



117 



break they had disappeared to strike somewhere else the 
following evening. These horrible sea wolves were the 
Danes and the Northmen. They are also called Vikings. 

Growing Bolder. — While the Danes came at first not 
to fight, but to plunder and sail away, they soon grew 
bolder. In many ships they rowed up the rivers, surprised 
and looted a village or town, carried ofi everything they 
wished, burned and killed, 
and vanished before an army 
could be gathered. So swift 
were these pirate vessels that 
there was no knowing where 
they would strike next, and 
the English were helpless. 

Their Savage Customs. — 
Among all the fierce fighters 
of those times, the Danes 
were the fiercest. They had 
nothing but contempt for 
pain or death. It is said 
that a noble Dane, who was 
taken prisoner, was offered 
the choice of death by burn- 
ing or marriage with the king's daughter, and he grimly 
chose to die at the stake. 

Their Prisoners. — They had no pity for their prisoners 
or captives. The women, even the daughters of kings, were 
most shamefully treated and thrown to the common sol- 
diers as slaves. The men were slain, often by tortures too 
horrible to mention. The Danes enjoyed hewing down the 
priest at his altar, and revelled in the grim sport of tossing 
babes from pike to pike. The English cried in terror, 
"Deliver us, Lord, from the fury of the Northmen." 




Viking Ships. 



Ii8 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

A Good Joke. — A story is told of their love of a joke. 
They had captured some Jomsburg Vikings whom they 
were about to kill. These captives were seated on a log 
with their feet bound to it. One after another was beheaded 
there where he sat, without flinching or even winking, the 
story says. At last the axman came to one of them named 
Sigurd, who had very long and beautiful hair. As his .turn 
came he cried out : " I fear not death. But let no slave 
touch my hair, nor blood defile it." So one of the North- 
men stepped forward and held up his hair till the ax should 
fall. But Sigurd gave a sudden jerk and the ax fell not on 
his neck but on the Northman's wrists, cutting off both his 
hands. This trick so delighted Eric, the king's son, that he 
laughed heartily and ordered all the other Jomsburgers 
to be pardoned. 

The Home of the Northmen. — The heathen Danes and 
the Northmen lived about the Baltic in Denmark and 
Norway. They were too far away to have been touched 
by the civilization of Rome. They were cousins of the 
Angles and Saxons, though they still clung to their heathen 
gods, while their Enghsh kinsmen had advanced a very 
long way in Christian civilization. 

Hard Life of Northmen. — The winters of their northern 
home were long and severe, and the short summers and the 
barren soil drove them more and more to the sea for their 
food. So they came to feel at home upon the sea, where 
they obtained their harvest of fish and plunder to help them 
through the long winters. Their growing population 
forced some to seek homes elsewhere, and when they heard 
of rich new lands to the south, with herds of cattle, sheep, 
and swine, they decided to go thither. 

The Danes Come to Stay. — They found none of the 
Httle kingdoms into which England was divided able to 



ALFRED THE GREAT AND THE DANES 119 

hold them back. Our Saxon forefathers had not yet learned 
that there is strength in union. So the Danes ceased to 
return home in the autumn. They drew their ships upon 
the shore of some island just off the Enghsh coast, fortified 
their camp, and went into winter quarters. 

How the Danes Fortified. — The Danes understood the 
value of fortified places. They usually chose for their 



A Fiord in Norway. 

camps places protected by the bend of a river, where their 
ships could be moored. Then across the bend in front of 
their camp they dug a ditch and put up a stockade. Here 
they were safe, for the English did not know how to storm 
a fortified camp, nor had they any machines or battering 
rams to assist in breaking in. The Danes were here joined 
in the spring by many more ships with numerous warriors, 
and they again spread themselves over England to plunder. 



I20 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

The English Need Forts. — The Saxons, as we have learned, 
disliked walled towns ; so they had destroyed all the fortified 
cities and camps of the Romans. Now when they wished 
to defend their country against sea rovers who could swoop 
down suddenly, they needed forts in which a few men could 
hold out against a large number. But they did not know 
how to fortify even their camps with palisades and ditches. 
When they were beaten in open battle, their army was 
scattered, while the Danes, if worsted, quickly retreated 
to their stockade and were safe. The pirate Danes also had 
good arms and armors, such as battle-axes, bows and arrows, 
spears, and shields, which they had gathered up in their 
many sea fights. 

The Army of the English. — The English army was made 
up of two classes of fighting men. First were the nobles, 
or thanes, who were bound to join the host as soon as sum- 
moned by the king. They were mounted, well-armed, and 
carried coats of mail, helmets, and shields. But the thanes 
were few in number. By far the larger part of the English 
army was made up of the fyrd, which was composed of all 
free landowners. They could be summoned to war only 
by the folkmoot. When called into the king's service, 
they came armed with clubs and hedge stakes, which could 
do little against the battle-axes and spears of the Danes. 
The moot was always slow in calling them out, and so they 
often came to the scene after the Danes had plundered and 
disappeared. 

Two Months' Service. — Long marches or long campaigns 
were impossible, because the English had no organized 
plan of feeding an army. When their provisions gave out, 
they must be near home to secure more, because each man 
was expected to feed himself. Besides, the farmer had left 
his crops growing, and he wished to get home to care for 



ALFRED THE GREAT AND THE DANES 121 

them. The fyrd had never been expected to remain in the 
field longer than two months, but even this was too long 
to hold the farmer when his crops were in need of care. So 
the king had a law made, fining a man heavily for leaving 
the service before his time was up. 

The Danes Always in Arms. — When the Danes were 
beaten they fell back behind their stockades and waited 
patiently until the two months were up and the Enghsh 
host had gone back to their farms. The Danes had a 
standing army — one that remained in the field from month 



Ancient Boat Found in Denmark. 

to month and from year to year. Moreover they were ex- 
perienced warriors. 

Roads Poor. — Another reason why it was so difiicult to 
check the swarming Danes was because the English could 
not move their troops quickly from place to place. There 
were no roads, only tracks through the forest, and the water- 
ways of rivers which were useless without boats. The 
English had long given up their sea-going habits for settled 
farm life and had forgotten all about navigation. 

Boats and Horses of Danes. — The Danes had their 
light boats which could ply on all the rivers. When they 
must leave their boats, they stole all the horses in the neigh- 



122 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

borhood and traveled quickly on horseback. If the Saxons 
chased them too closely, they took to their boats and soon 
appeared in another part of England with the Saxon army 
far away. 

Why the Danes Hated Monasteries. — The Danes and 
Northmen still worshiped Odin and Thor. They thought 
that their Enghsh cousins had abandoned the true Teutonic 
religion for a false one. So the Danes eagerly killed all 
priests, monks, and nuns on whom they could lay hands. 
They destroyed churches with joy, and were never so happy 
as when they had plundered a monastery and given it to the 
flames. It was in the monasteries, also, that the richest 
plunder was to be found. Not only Canterbury, but all 
the abbeys near the coast, soon lay in blackened ruins with 
the monks cruelly slain. 

Fresh Hordes Keep Coming. — The Enghsh could not 
help being discouraged, for fresh hordes kept swarming up 
the rivers. They came all armed to the teeth, in fleets of a 
hundred vessels or more. There seemed to be no limit to 
the supply of these wolves from the north. They dashed 
from place to place on swift horses, so quickly that the 
Enghsh could not corner them. The rich cities, churches, 
and monasteries farther inland were the objects of special 
raids. 

Danes Victorious. — They seized more land and built 
more forts. Sometimes they were checked, but they never 
gave up a foot of the territory that they had taken. One 
little kingdom after another fell into their hands, for the 
Enghsh did not know yet how to unite their strength. 

The Outlook was Dark. — The Danes had already seized 
upon every kingdom of England except Wessex ; they had 
destroyed everything. Not only were the monasteries 
and churches looted and given to the flames, but schools 



ALFRED THE GREAT AND THE DANES 123 

and books and learning were gone. All improved tools and 
houses and barns were in ashes ; flocks of sheep and herds 
of cattle and hogs had been driven off and butchered by the 
hungry Danes ; even the people had disappeared from en- 
tire districts, leaving ruins and neglected fields behind. 
Nothing remained but the memory of peace and a bitter 




The Wise Men of Alfred's Time. 

hatred for the cruel Danes. Still a new king boldly took 
up his battle-ax to defend Wessex. 

Alfred Becomes King. — Alfred had three older brothers, 
so there seemed to be little chance that he would ever be- 
come king. But each brother, in turn, fell in battle with the 
Danes, after reigning only a few years. It was in 871, 
when his last brother was slain, that Alfred, at the early age 
of twenty-two, was called to rule his West Saxons. 

King Alfred's Boyhood. — Alfred's mother died, we are 
told, when he was still a child. When he was four years 
old, his father, the king, sent him to Rome with Bishop 
Swinthun, who carried many costly gifts to the pope. Here 
Alfred was anointed by the pope and adopted as his spiritual 



124 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

son. Very little is known of Alfred's boyhood. It was 
customary in those days for the king's son to be taken from 
women and nurses as soon as he was strong enough to 
practice riding and the use of arms, and to be placed in the 
court or the house of some noble, where he was daily taught 
in all kinds of manly sports, such as hunting and throwing. 
Above all things he was trained to be a soldier, for fighting 
was the first duty of every man. 

Alfred and the Danes. — Wherever he was brought up, 
Alfred must have heard every day the clash and clang of 
arms. All through his boyhood, stories were told of the 
coming of more Danes in their multitude of ships, of victories 
and defeats. Alfred did not know that he was one day to 
conquer these very Danes and to make England one kingdom 
with one law, one rehgion, and one language. As he grew 
he was permitted to follow the king's army and, perhaps, 
to watch the light from a distance. 

Alfred's Love of Learning. — In the long winter evenings, 
Alfred sat with the king and thanes, the queen and ladies, 
around the fire in the great hall, and listened to the min- 
strels chanting and reciting verses about old heroes, wars, 
and legends, while they waited for spring and the return of 
the Danes. So Alfred grew to love learning and poetry and 
books. He learned much from the scholars and monks of 
the monasteries, from priests and from noble ladies in the 
nunneries. He understood Latin and could turn Latin books 
into Anglo-Saxon. Even after the Danes had overthrown 
and burned the monasteries, Alfred's love of learning clung 
to him through all the stormy years of war and destruction. 

The Danes in Wessex. — The boy was at last old enough 
to join the king's army and to fight in a coat of mail. He 
could now, no doubt, wield the great battle-ax as deftly as 
liis brother, the king ; when, suddenly, he was himself called 



ALFRED THE GREAT AND THE DANES 125 

upon to wear the crown of Wessex. Having taken all the 
other kingdoms, the Danes now came upon Wessex with a 
large army, not only of their own men, but of Northmen, also. 
They swept up the Thames, having on either bank troops 
mounted and on foot. In one year the young king Alfred 
fought nine pitched battles with them. Sometimes he was 
defeated, and sometimes he was victorious ; but even a vic- 
tory did Httle good, for the swift Danes quickly appeared 
in another part of the country. 
At last in order to gain time to 
stiengthen his army, Alfred bought 
off the enemy, and they returned 
to London, outside of Wessex. 

Fighting the Danes at Sea. — 
Three years later Alfred again took 
the field against the Danes. He 
knew that in order to beat them, 
he must meet them on the sea ; so 
he built a small fleet, — the first 

' King Alfred. 

English warships. Out of seven 

Danish vessels, he captured one and put the rest to flight. 

So Alfred has been called '' The Father of the Enghsh Navy." 

Alfred is Beaten on Land. — Alfred was not so successful 
on land. He could not drive the swarms of Danes out of 
the country, but neither could they overrun his kingdom, as 
they tiad all the other kingdoms of England. The Danes 
seemed to have met their match. The war went on till 
winter and impassable roads put an end to the fighting. 

Danes at Last Victorious. — In the depths of winter 
when Alfred's army had scattered to their homes, the Danes 
suddenly broke up their winter quarters and quickly 
spread over the country. Thus Wessex was taken by sur- 
prise, and the land was left desolate like the other kingdoms. 




126 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Farms were ravaged, villages and towns were ransacked and 
burned, churches and monasteries lay in blackened ruins. 
Alfred's subjects seemed to be discouraged and worn out with 
their loiig marches back and forth, in trying to corner the 




Weapons of the Danes. 



fleeing Danes. Alfred could do notliing more to check the 
enemy. To him everything seemed as black as night ; so he 
disappeared and let the Danes take his kingdom. 

King Alfred an Outlaw. — But Alfred alone of all the 
Saxons had not lost hope. He settled down with a band of 
followers upon a little island in the river Tham^es. Here, 



ALFRED THE GREAT AND THE DANES 127 

like an outlaw, he remained in hiding in the woods. When- 
ever he saw a good chance, he salhed out and struck the 
Danes unexpectedly, doing them all the harm he could. 
Then he stole back to his hiding place. Here he kept think- 
ing how he might drive them out altogether. He planned a 
great fleet, he learned how to build forts hke those of the 
Danes, and he made better arms for his men. 

Alfred's Hour has Come. — At last Alfred felt that his 
Saxons were ready to hght in earnest. So when the leaves 
were budding in the forest in the spring, he stole from his 
island and called his men together. Suddenly his army 
dashed from the dense forest and marched straight upon the 
Danes at Chippenham. The Danes were amazed at this 
great army which seemed to have sprung up out of the earth, 
but they came out to meet Alfred's host. 

Battle of Chippenham. — The English army gripped their 
weapons firmly as they remembered their burned homes and 
their children carried over the sea as slaves. Alfred ar- 
ranged his army in the shape of a wedge, and they rushed into 
battle with a wild shout. The fight was soon over, and the 
Danes were fleeing to their fort. Alfred rode after them, 
and his army sat down to besiege their camp. For two 
weeks he kept them penned up, and they begged for peace. 
Alfred knew that he could not drive all of the Danes out of 
England, for they were too numerous and had too many forts. 
So he made terms with them. 

The Treaty of Wedmore. — The Danes gave men to 
Alfred as hostages, or pledges that they would keep their 
word. They swore mighty oaths that they would quit 
ravaging Wessex, and their king Gu thrum promised to 
become a Christian and to be baptized. This he did with 
many of his great warriors. Alfred and Guthrum now 
agreed to make the Thames River a boundary between their 



128 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

two kingdoms. So the Danes kept northeastern England, 
while Alfred kept all the south and west, which was all of 
Wessex and a great deal more. Thus " Wessex was saved ; 
and in saving Wessex, Alfred had saved England " from be- 
coming a heathen land again. 

Alfred Repairing the Ruin. — Alfred now set about to 
repair the ruin of his kingdom and to get ready for another 
war with the Danes, because he was unwilling to leave the 
city of London in their hands. He reahzed that he must 
have a larger standing army, forts, ships, and better arms, if 
he were to hold his own against these warriors. 

A Larger Army. — So Alfred divided the lands of his 
kingdom into small military districts of a few hundred acres 
each. Each district was to send an armed man at the king's 
summons and to provide him with food and pay. This 
gave Alfred a respectable standing army. 

The fyrd was divided into two parts. One part took the 
field, while the other looked after the crops and protected 
the homes and the townships. This enabled Alfred to under- 
take a longer campaign. He also built forts and encouraged 
the townsmen to fortify their towns with ditches and pali- 
sades ; he built a fleet of ships larger and swifter than those 
of the Danes ; and he continued to improve the weapons 
of his soldiers. So when war came again in 886, King Alfred 
was ready. 

The Danes Meet Their Match. — Alfred soon took London 
from the Danes and made it his capital. He forced them 
to give him much more territory. With London and the 
Thames valley in his hands, Alfred fortified and closed this 
waterway to the Danes. Since the invaders had already 
built homes in their new lands, they could not fight so well, 
for they must now defend their own homes before they could 
burn and destroy those of the Saxons. So they were beaten, 




EHSRAVED 8y BOBMAr 4 CO.. ,N.1 



ALFRED THE GREAT AND THE DANES 129 

and Alfred extended his rule over more and more of their 
lands. 

King of England. — So great was the respect and ad- 
miration for the wonderful Alfred among all the Angles, 
Saxons, and Jutes that they turned to him as their hope and 
their dehverer from slavery to the Danes. The jealousies 
among the people, who had before formed little kingdoms, 
now disappeared, and in its place was a growing pride in 
the greatness of England, a feeling of oneness and union. 

The Danes Become English. — The Danish newcomers 
settled down quietly, after a time, and were tamed. They 
readily mixed and intermarried with the EngHsh ; they 
received the EngHsh reUgion and the Anglo-Saxon speech; 
and after a few generations, the Danes could not be distin- 
guished from the Anglo-Saxons. One great reason for this 
lay in their being close kin to the Saxons and having customs 
and a language very similar to them. The Danes brought 
many good qualities to enrich the EngHsh stock — greater 
daring, deeper love of personal freedom, better seamanship, 
and a warmer love of the sea, besides a keener spirit of 
trade and commerce, in which England excels to this 
day. 

Alfred's Work in Time of Peace. — Alfred now spent his 
years of peace in building up and uniting the greater part 
of England. He encouraged trade and travel, because these 
would help to do away with the ignorance and prejudice 
of his people. He did all that he could to make England 
safe for foreign merchants. He raised to the order of gentle- 
man every merchant who had made three voyages to the 
Mediterranean at his own expense. Alfred sent ambassadors 
to Rome, to France, to the East, and even to India. He 
also encouraged the work of craftsmen, goldsmiths, and 
jewelers, for in these crafts the Saxons were very skillful. 



i;o DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 




A Viking Ship and an Ocean Liner. 
(Columbian Exposilion.) 



ALFRED THE GREAT AND THE DANES 131 

Character of Alfred the Great. — Alfred is said to have 
been the most perfect character in history. No other man 
on record has united so many great quahties. He was a 
good Christian man in an age when so many were wicked. 
Like Washington he was a great warrior, never cast down 
in defeat nor cruel to the enemy when he had conquered. 
He was unselfish, for he lived only to serve his people. In 
addition to all this, Alfred was a great statesman, improving 
the army, building up a navy, erecting walls about the 
cities, and making good laws for his people. Alfred 
gathered together all the good laws wherever he could find 
them and wrote them down and caused them to be obeyed 
instead of the cruel and barbarous customs of the Saxons. 
In this way he greatly improved the laws of his kingdom. 

Alfred's Court and Judges. — Alfred also saw to it that 
everybody, rich and poor, obeyed the laws. There arose 
during Alfred's reign many powerful nobles, who would 
not obey the orders of the shire moot if they did not choose 
to do so. Alfred made all the nobles bring their cases to 
him, and he saw to it that the poor man got justice and that 
the rich nobles obeyed his decisions like other people. He 
heard cases day and night. Of course these nobles hated 
Alfred heartily because he made them do right. Alfred 
once said that to be a good king one had to do many un- 
pleasant things and make many enemies. 

Encourages Learning. — Alfred encouraged great scholars 
and men of learning to come over from the continent. He 
entertained them in his court ; he raised them to be bishops 
and abbots ; he consulted with them and made them his 
personal friends. Alfred was himself a great scholar, in 
an age when nearly everybody was ignorant. He built 
schools and monasteries, encouraged learning, and wrote 
books in Anglo-Saxon so that his people could read them. 



132 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Everything Alfred did was done, not for his own glory, but 
for the good of his people. 

King Alfred's Death. — After ruling for nearly thirty 
years, King Alfred died in 901. In his will he left money 
to all his family and friends and gave his slaves their free- 
dom. In his last days he wrote : " This I will say, that I 
have tried to live worthily while I lived, and after my Hfe 
to leave to the men that come after me a remembering of 
me in good works." No ruler ever set so good an example 
of what a king should be, and the EngHsh people have never 
ceased to love him and to call him Alfred the Great. 

England for the English. — x\fter Alfred's death, for 
more than a hundred years, England was ruled over by 
strong Wessex kings. They bent all their powers to finish 
what Alfred had begun — to unite and strengthen the 
English people. Thus, the whole country became so 
thoroughly English, with one language, one system of 
laws, and one religion, that it has ever remained so. Eng- 
land was later conquered by fresh hordes of Danes under 
Canute. It was still later conquered and ruled over by the 
Normans under William the Conqueror, with his French- 
speaking army and nobles. However, the English lan- 
guage, laws, and customs were so well grounded that they 
could not be rooted out by the foreign king or a foreign 
nobility. For this we are indebted mainly to the strong 
kings of Wessex, of whom Alfred was the greatest. 

QUESTIONS 

Danes and Northmen — i. What improvement was there in 
England? 2. Why was there less fighting ? 3. Describe the home 
of the Danes and Northmen. 4. Where was it? 5. What were the 
characteristics of these men ? 6. Why did they rove? 7. Where? 
8. Why do they settle in Britain ? 9. Whom do they find there ? 



ALFRED THE GREAT AND THE DANES 133 

10. Why are the Danes able to settle there? 11. Describe the 
Danish fortifications. 

English Army — 12. What divisions of people were there in 
England at this time ? 13. What two classes of soldiers were there ? 
14. How were the soldiers called together? 15. How were they 
armed? 16. What supplies did they get? 17. Describe the cam- 
paign. 18. What weakness was there in this army? 19. Compare 
the English and Danish armies. 20. What was the feeling of the 
army toward the monasteries? 21. What were the results of the 
Danish invasions ? 

King Alfred — 22. Describe his boyhood. 2^. Discuss the 
treaty of Wedmore. 24. How was Alfred's army different from the 
old one? 25. How did Alfred prepare to meet the Danes? 
26. What territory did he seize ? 27. Why? 28. Wherein lay King 
Alfred's strength? 29. Why was he able to defeat the Danes? 
30. Results. 31. What good quaUties did the Danes add to the Eng- 
lish nation? 32. Why was it easy for them to settle in England? 
2,T). What do you think of King Alfred as a man ? 34. What did 
he do for England? 35. What were the results of Alfred's rule? 



CHAPTER IX 

THE BEGINNING OF FRANCE 

The Franks. — The most important German tribe that 
settled in Gaul was the Franks, who, after a time, gave 
their name to that country. There were several tribes of 
them. The chief who made them strong and great was 
Clovis. He was only fifteen years old when he became king 
of his tribe of Franks, but he was an unusually brave youth 
and soon proved to be a great warrior. He early began to 
conquer the tribes about him and to add their lands to his 
own. Some of the other chiefs Clovis drove away, and some 
he murdered. 

Franks Become Christians. — The Franks had been 
pagans until Clovis married a German lady, Clotilda, who 
had become a Christian ; and this paved the way for all of 
the Franks to accept Christianity. Clovis had waged war 
on the Burgundians, conquered them, and made them 
receive him as their king. He then moved against the Ale- 
mans, another German tribe. This time he almost met his 
match. In the midst of the battle, Clovis saw his lines 
giving way, and the battle seemed almost lost. Then he 
called upon the God of his wife, vowing that if Christ would 
help him to victory, he would be baptized and become «i 
Christian. In Clovis's army were many Christian Gauls, 
and when they heard of his vow, their enthusiasm and fierce 
fighting at last defeated the Alemans. So Clovis kept his 
word, and on Christmas day was baptized, together with 
three thousand of his warriors, who thus became members 
of the Catholic Church. 

134 



THE BEGINNING OF FRANCE 135 

Clovis and the Pope join Hands. — This act of Clovis 
had a great influence on France, for the Christian Gauls 
now gladly accepted him as their king, and joined his army. 
The pope of Rome also was greatly pleased, for he and 
Clovis could join hands against the enemies of the Roman 
Catholic Church. Becoming a Christian had made very 
little change in the conduct of Clovis, but he was glad to 
have the help of the Christian Gauls and of the Church. 
So he became its champion. He made war on the West 
Goths and took a large territory from them, and then turned 
against the other tribes of Franks, whose rulers were his 
friends. Clovis had these secretly murdered or killed in 
dift'erent ways, until he was ruler of nearly all the territory 
of what is now France. The Gauls and Franks were 
uniting to form the French people. Paris became the 
capital city. As Clovis's kingdom became larger and larger 
his power grew, and the people had less to say as to how they 
should be ruled. France was in a fair way to become a 
strong kingdom, when Clovis died in 511. The country 
was then divided among his four sons. 

Centuries of Darkness. — There followed a long, long 
time when France was full of darkness, of wickedness, and 
of crime ; when there was no safety anywhere from 
robbery and fighting. And then at last there appeared at 
Paris another strong ruler, Charlemagne, or Charles the 
Great. 

Charles Subdued the Saxons. — Charles was also a 
member of the Roman Church and in high favor with the 
pope. He wished to unite all the German tribes in one 
great Christian state. If he were to succeed in this plan, 
he must first conquer the Saxon tribes who lived along the 
Rhine. These pagan Saxons were great warriors, and 
Charles found the task of subduing them a hard one indeed. 



136 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



Every time he defeated the Saxons, they rose up again. 
Nine times Charles put them down, the last time with 
great cruelty, for he beheaded four thousand Saxon warriors 
in one day. Then he declared that every Hving Saxon who 

refused to be baptized as a 
Christian, or who ate flesh 
during Lent, should lose his 
head. So the Saxons on the 
Rhine were finally con- 
quered, and their lands added 
to the empire of Charles. 

A Strong Ruler. — 
Charles succeeded in build- 
ing up a very great Christian 
empire. It included all of 
what is now France, Belgium, 
Netherlands, and nearly all 
of Germany. Charles ruled 
it well, for he was a strong 
king. He had great armies, 
as well as fleets of warships. 
Robbers and pirates were 
driven away, and the rude 
Germans had a brief period 
of peace in which they might 
take a few steps toward civ- 
ilized living. 

" Emperor of the Romans." — In the year 800, Charles 
went to Rome to settle a dispute between Pope Leo III 
and his enemies. The trouble was settled, and the pope 
held a solemn service in St. Peter's on Christmas day to 
give thanks, and to celebrate the peace that Charles had 
obtained for him. As Charles the Great was kneeling 





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THE BEGINNING OF FRANCE 137 

before the altar during the service, the pope came to him, 
and, to his surprise, set a crown upon his head and saluted 
him as " Emperor of the Romans," amid the applause of 
the people. 

Encourages Learning. — Charles not only kept order 
in his great empire, but he began to educate the people. 
He urged the priests and bishops to establish schools in 
connection with their churches, and to teach the boys to 
read, for those were times of great ignorance among the 
people. Charles himself built up a great school in his 
palace to teach the sons of noblemen. He gathered to- 
gether the greatest scholars and teachers from all countries. 

Amusements. — One sport of Charles the Great's time 
was tracking and driving animals of all sorts into pens made 
of cloths or nets, where the hunters killed them by the 
thousand. It was said of Charlemagne, that though usually 
at war, he never missed a chance to hunt. He enjoyed 
hunting so much that he rested himself by galloping through 
the forest. On these occasions he was followed by hunts- 
men and attendants of his household, and by his wife and 
daughters, all mounted on magnificent horses. All the 
members of the party vied with one another in attacking 
the fiercest animals. " They often used a stuffed cow as a 
bhnd while approaching wild fowl. We find sportsmen 
shooting with bow and arrows at bears, wild boars, and stags. 
Their arrows had sharp iron points. When hunting rabbits, 
an arrow with a big blunt end was used in order to stun the 
animal without piercing his body. Sometimes a sportsman 
with his crossbow was seated in a carriage all covered with 
boughs, so as to approach his prey without alarming it any 
more than a swinging branch would do." 

Another Period of Darkness. — Charles the Great died 
in 814, and the whole empire went to pieces again, for 



138 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

the Germans were not yet able to settle down to live lives 
of peace and honest labor. As soon as the strong arm of 
Charles the Great was no longer felt, robbers and brigands 
swarmed over the land to kill, torture, and plunder as they 
pleased. It took a strong man to rule those rough people, 
and such a man was not to be found. " The ninth century 
was an age of indescribable horror and misery in France." 

QUESTIONS 

I. Where had the Franks settled? 2. Who was their leader? 
3. Why had Clovis so much power ? 4. What did he do for France? 
V In what condition was France after his death? 6. Who was 
Charlemagne? 7. What was his ambition? 8. Over how great a 
kingdom did he rule ? 9. What did he accomplish ? 10. Why was 
his empire so easily destroyed ? 11. Why and where were the 
Northmen plundering? 12. What were the results? 



CHAPTER X 
FEUDALISM 

The Northmen on the Continent. — At the time when 
England was suffering from the raids of the Northrnen, 
their fleets were also plundering the coasts and river cities 
of France, Spain, and Germany. Everywhere these sea 
wolves found the government too weak to resist them, and 
everywhere they wrought dreadful havoc. The people of 
France suffered severely. The Northmen not only ravaged 
the country districts, but sacked scores of great cities, among 
them Paris. The rich plunder that they sought was found 
mainly in churches and in monasteries. These they robbed 
and burned with dehght, while they mocked and scoffed 
at the Christian religion. It is said that they even stabled 
their horses in the fine cathedral near the tomb of Charles 
the Great. 

The Fighter is King. — Since all government was gone, 
and no power whatever was left to protect the people from 
the continual plundering of the Northmen, each community 
was forced to look out for itself. There was usually found 
in each neighborhood one man who was stronger than the 
others. Perhaps it was because of his riches or his influence 
with men, but more likely it was because of his ability to 
fight. So he was made leader, and all the weaker men with 
their famiHes looked to him for protection. 

Warding off the Northmen. — Each of these fighting 
chieftains planted himself upon some strong position in his 
domain — a ford, a pass into a valley, or a hilltop, where he 

139 



140 



DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



built a strong castle. Here he stood with his troop, arms in 
hand by day and sleeping upon them at night, to hold the rob- 
bers at bay. In those dark days, kings, nobles, and knights, 
in order to be ready at all hours, kept their horses in the same 
rooms in which they themselves slept with their families. 
Their beds were piles of leaves or straw upon the floor of the 




An Ui-u Casili-. 



hall, and- their spurs were seldom taken off when they went 
to sleep. 

Safety for the Peasant. — The neighborhood was no 
longer a prey to the wicked Northmen. The peasant 
enjoyed protection. He did not live in constant fear of 
being cut down by the battle-ax or led away captive with 
his family as slaves. He plowed and sowed crops, feeling 
sure that he would reap a harvest, unharmed. In case of 
danger, he knew a safe place for his family, his cattle, and 
grain, under the shelter of the castle on the distant hilltop. 
People lived — were glad to live — under the iron-gloved 



FEUDALISM 141 

hand of a noble, even if he did sometimes use them roughly. 
This was much to be preferred to falling into the hands of the 
savage Northmen. " Not to be killed, and to have a good 
sheepskin coat in winter, was for many people of the tenth 
century the height of felicity." 

Agreement between Noble and Farmer. — The chieftain 
or noble and the small landowners in the country around 
came to an agreement. They gave their lands up to him 
and received back only the use of them, while the noble 
was to afford them protection. In order to do this he must 
keep up his troop of ready fighters. The peasants, in re- 
turn for this protection, cultivated their lord's land, did his 
work, paid him dues for house rent, for every head of cattle 
they raised, and for turning over their land to their children. 
They paid these dues in stock, grain, poultry, and the like, 
for there was very Httle money in those days. 

Taking Toll. — Moreover the noble alone had wealth 
enough to construct a mill, an oven, or a wine press; to 
build a bridge, or to maintain a ferry ; and in order to be 
paid for his trouble, he taxed all the people who used them. 
The time came when the " vassals could not take their corn 
to any other than their lord's mill, their bread to any other 
than the lord's oven, or their grapes to any other than the 
lord's wine press " ; and they must pay whatever toll the 
lord demanded. There was nothing to prevent the noble 
from taking half the farmer's corn as toll for grinding the 
other half. So a greedy noble sometimes " ground the 
people's faces while he ground their corn." 

Another Kind of Tax. — The vassals had also to pay, or 
to provide, certain aids to their lord. They were expected 
to help buy his freedom if he were taken prisoner, to help 
pay the expense of knighting the lord's eldest son, and of the 
marriage of his eldest daughter. Then, too, they must 



142 



DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



entertain their lord and his followers when he came into 
their midst. Some vassals gave such scanty fare that it 
was often written down just what food and drink they must 
provide for their lord on these visits. 

Receiving a Fief. — When the lord gave to his vassal a 
section of land, which they called a fief, there were certain 
ceremonies to be performed. First, the vassal, to show 




TicKELL Castle. 

devotion to his lord, uncovered his head, unbuckled his 
belt, and put aside his sword and spurs ; he then knelt and 
placed his hands between those of his lord and promised 
to be his man thenceforth, to serve him loyally with Hfe 
and Kmb, in return for the lands that he was about to 
receive. Then he swore a solemn oath to be true to his 
lord. Lastly the lord took the man to the land and gave 
it into his possession, or if the land was too far away, the 
lord gave the vassal a piece of turf, a stone, or a branch, as 
a symbol of the land. 

Each Lord a King. — The small landowners ceased to 



FEUDALISM 



143 




144 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

own farms and became vassals to a neighboring lord or 
noble. The whole country was thus divided into these 
petty Httle fiefs or states ; castles crowned the hilltops ; 
and instead of one strong central government, it was said 
that there were ten thousand in France alone. Each lord 
was practically independent of the king, for he made his 
own laws and compelled obedience to them ; he laid and 
collected his own taxes, coined his own money, when he had 
any, and held court to try lawbreakers. The people of 
these petty states often became proud of their lord and his 
family. They repeated with pride his great feats of arms, 
and they cheered him as he passed by with his knights. 

The Idea of King Not Forgotten. — This feudal gov- 
ernment grew up through the Dark Ages. Feudal lords 
sometimes pieced together large districts. Some of this 
they received from other nobles or from the king, and in 
this way, lords became vassals of those above them. All the 
land was supposed to have belonged at first to the king. 
He gave it out to his vassals, the nobles, in large tracts, 
and they granted it in smaller fields to their vassals or serfs. 
These again divided up the land in farms to their vassals. 
In this way the idea of a king was not forgotten, even though 
he seemed to have so httle power, for the nobles owed him 
allegiance and service. Sometimes when there was war 
between two great nobles, the king was called in as peace- 
maker. In this way he showed that he still had a little 
power left. However, the common people owed no duties 
to the king, but only to their lords. 

Fighting as a Business. — Fighting was the chief occu- 
pation of the feudal lords. With so much selfishness and 
greed and so many chances to quarrel, there was no trouble 
in finding an excuse for war. Each lord had proud enemies 
all about him. At some time in his life he was likely to 



FEUDALISM 145 

fight each of his neighboring lords, bishops, and abbots, 
then his fellow- vassals, and lastly his under vassals. Every- 
body took advantage of a weak neighbor. A son often 
carried on war against his father to get hold of part of the 
estate before the father's death; younger brothers often 
fought against older ones. 

The Lord's Court. — Each lord had a court to settle the 
disputes of his vassals, but often he let them fight it out 
rather than force upon them the decisions of his own court. 
The laws of those days did not forbid neighborhood fighting, 
but merely provided that neighbors should fight in a decent 
and gentlemanly way. 

The " Truce of God." — These continual wars were very 
destructive. People were killed off in great numbers, 
buildings were burned, and crops laid waste. It was 
impossible in such wild times for the people to grow more 
civilized. The poor came to wish more and more for peace. 
The church always opposed war; now it finally brought 
about the " Truce of God," which prohibited all fighting 
from Thursday evening of each week until the following 
Monday morning. Likewise on fast days warring was 
forbidden. The bishops forced the feudal lords to take 
oath to keep this weekly truce. If any lord refused, he 
was excommunicated from the church and was declared an 
outcast. In those days there was but one church, and to 
be turned out of it was a trying punishment. Thus the 
church gradually helped to do away with fighting for a part 
of every week. 

QUESTIONS 

I. What is the meaning of feudalism? 2. What started feudal- 
ism? 3. Describe the castle. 4. How was it protected ? 5. What 
workers were there in it? 6. Describe the life of a peasant. 
7. What agreement was made between the noble and the peasant?. 

L 



146 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

8. What was a fief? 9. A vassal? 10. Why could the lord grow 
so strong? 11. Discuss tolls and taxes. 12. What power had the 
king at this time ? 13. Why was there so much fighting ? 14. What 
was the result of such continual fighting ? 15. What was the "Truce 
of God"? 



CHAPTER XI 



CASTLE LIFE 



How Castles were Protected. — The nobles and barons 
were not fighting all the time ; now we will get a gUmpse 
of how they lived in their 
castles during days of 
peace. The castles were 
enormous buildings of 
stone, the walls of which 
were often so thick that 
a man crawling out of a 
window would have to 
creep three times his 
length. On the outside 
of the wall was a wide 
moat, or ditch, filled with 
water. Along the outer 
edge of the moat was 
often a palisade. If the 
enemy got over the pali- 
sade and across the moat, 
he was face to face with 
the huge wall upon which 
were the defenders of the 
castle, who might hurl 
down stones or logs or boihng pitch. At short intervals 
along the walls were strong towers with narrow windows 
from which to shoot. 




Plan of a Castle. 



147 



148 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



The Entrance. — The gate to the castle was even more 
strongly guarded. In front of the gate was a drawbridge 
across the moat. The drawbridge was lowered to allow 
friends to cross this ditch and then raised on end against 
the wall to prevent enemies from entering. On both sides 
of the gateway were heavy towers of stone, which were 
filled with warriors in case of attack. Loopholes looked 




The Drawbridge. 



down on the enemy from many directions. Between these 
tall towers were great wooden doors, and behind the doors 
was a heavy iron grating called a portcullis, which was 
lowered to block the entrance of an enemy. Keen-eyed 
guards were always on the lookout for foes. So strong 
and so massive were these castles that the gray walls of 
many of them are still to be seen to-day, crowning the hill- 
tops of Europe. Upon such a fort as this the Northmen 
spent their force in vain. Seldom did they get a peep 
inside of such strongholds. 



CASTLE LIFE 149 

A Peep Within. — But we may enter, for we are friends. 
One blast of our familiar bugle horn and the drawbridge is 
lowered by its huge chains, and we cross the moat. The 
wooden gate is opened, the iron grating, or portculhs, is 
raised, and we enter the courtyard. Here we see a variety 
of buildings and an open space of several acres, perhaps, 
which may serve to shelter cattle and other live stock when 
the plunderers are abroad. Near at hand are stables for 
the horses of the knights. We see the great oven where 
the bread is baked for the lord and his followers. Near by 
is a building with storerooms and cellars for storing provi- 
sions, because, in case of a long siege, much food is needed. 
Next we behold the great kitchen where cooking is done, 
and possibly a chapel. 

The Donjon Keep. — Now, to our surprise, we come upon 
a fort within the fort. It is the keep, or " donjon," with 
walls of stone eight or ten feet thick. This is the last and 
stoutest defense of all for the noble and his family. We 
find it provided with its own well and storerooms, and be- 
neath it are also dark dungeons for prisoners. The only 
way to take it would be to starve out the defenders by a 
long siege. Even when that is done, there are hidden or 
underground passages leading to the moat outside the wall, 
so that the baron and his family may escape to the open 
country rather than be captured and thrown into his own 
dark dungeons to die. 

Workers in the Castle. — The people who lived in the 
castle were not all knights. There were craftsmen of several 
kinds. Each great lord had his tailor and blacksmith, 
his saddler and shoewrights, who made of hides shoes of 
various kinds, leather bottles, bridles, halters, and pouches. 
The most important of all, perhaps, were the swordsmiths 
and the makers of armor. A number of women also were 



I50 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

gathered into a sort of factory, making clothes for all the 
people in the castle. 

The Page. — It was the great hope of every high-born 
lad of those days to become a knight when he grew up. 
At the age of seven these boys were taken to the castle 
of some great noble, where they were to be trained for 
knighthood. Between the ages of seven and fourteen the 
lad was called a page. It was the page's duty to attend 
his master and mistress in their travels or on hunting trips, 
and to be polite and courteous to all, especially to ladies. 
A page carried messages, waited on his lord and lady at 
meals, carved their food, and poured their drinks. Pages 
played at doing everything they saw knights do. They 
held combats or duels among themselves, using sticks for 
lances or swords. These boys were most anxious to be- 
come squires. Sometimes if they showed skill and bravery, 
they were made squires younger than their fellows, and so 
every page wished to show his bravery in any way he could. 

Becoming a Squire. — When about fourteen, the page 
went through a very solemn ceremony to become a squire. 
He stood before the altar and received from the hands of 
the priest a sword upon which the priest had pronounced 
a blessing. This consecrated sword the page promised to 
wield on behalf of honor and of the church. 

Duties of a Squire. — As a squire his time was spent in 
hard training for knighthood. He put on heavy armor and 
practiced leaping to the back of a horse, and walking or 
running long distances on foot. He turned somersaults, 
he struck blows with a battle-ax, or hurled spears and lances. 
Clad in full armor, he was expected, by placing both hands 
on the saddle, to leap clean over his horse. It was a duty 
of the squire to receive visiting nobles to his master's 
court. He must care for the stables, break in new chargers, 



CASTLE LIFE 



151 




152 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

and assist his lord to mount his horse. Squires fastened 
the armor on their lord. If he were unhorsed in battle, 
they were at hand with a fresh horse and helped him to 
remount. If wounded, they tried to carry him from the 
field before he was slain. They also had charge of all 
prisoners taken by the knights on the field of battle. 

The Spurs were Won. — After the squire had shown 
himself honorable and brave and had " won his spurs," 
he prepared to become a knight. He ate no food for days, 
he spent three nights in prayer, he appeared before the altar 
clad in pure white to see his sword consecrated. And then 
a day was fixed for the great ceremony. He again appeared 
before the altar on bended knee with the sword suspended 
from his neck, for he had not yet the right to gird it to his 
side. The bishop took the sword from its scabbard and 
gave it to the knight, saying, " Receive this blade in the 
name of the Father and use it for your own defense and that 
of God's Holy Church, and, so far as possible, wound no 
one unjustly with it." The new-made knight arose, bran- 
dished the sword, wiped it on his left arm, and replaced it 
in the scabbard. The bishop gave him the kiss of peace, 
saying, " Peace be with thee." Then with the naked sword 
he struck the knight gently three times on the shoulders, 
saying, " Be thou a peaceable, brave, and faithful warrior." 
The knight next received his armor — cuirass, gauntlets, 
helmet, and sword ; other knights put on his spurs, gave 
him his shield and lance, and his charger was brought. 

Two Duties of a Knight. — Whenever a knight was 
present at mass, he held the point of his sword before him 
while the Gospel was read, to show his determination to 
defend religion. The German nations had great respect 
for their women, who were noble and virtuous ; and this 
regard came to enter into knighthood, for each knight was 



CASTLE LIFE 



153 








A Knight in Armor. 



154 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

bound to protect the weak. Knights were commanded to 
love God and the ladies. It was beheved in the castles 
that he who was faithful and true to his mistress was al- 
most sure of reward in the next world. 

The Crusades. — When the Mohammedan Turks cap- 
tured Jerusalem, the Christian knights of all Europe burned 
with a desire to win back the tomb of Christ from these 
Turks. After that time, every knight pledged himself to be 
ready to go on a crusade to the Holy Land, when the op- 
portunity came. 

A False Knight was Expelled. — If a knight broke his 
sacred vows, or proved to be a man without honor, he was 
degraded. He was stripped of his armor, which was broken 
to pieces before his eyes. His spurs were cast into the mud. 
His shield was tied to a work horse and dragged through 
the dirt, and his charger's tail cut off. The dishonored 
knight was then placed on a scaffold in nothing but his 
shirt, and a herald called out three times in a loud voice, 
" Who is there? " Each time he was answered with the 
name of the knight, and each time the herald replied : 
" No, it is not so. I see no knight here ; I see only a coward 
who has been false to his sacred vows." 

Training of the Women. — Women of the higher classes 
were taught from childhood to do acts of kindness to friends 
and strangers, and especially to knights who might enter 
their castles. On a knight's return from battle or from a 
tournament, the women unbuckled his armor with their 
own hands, brought forth perfumed and spotless linen and 
a mantle and a scarf that they had embroidered. They 
prepared his bath and waited upon him at table. They 
did their utmost to win approval by modest behavior. 

Respect for Women. — Women have not usually had 
much influence among people of rude manners, because they 



CASTLE LIFE 



155 



had no chance to show their beauty and grace by becom- 
ing dress and adornment. These are woman's God-given 
charms and her defense, just as strength and power are 
man's. So long as man's pastimes were only drunken 
brawls, woman had no part in them. But castle life gave 
the women a chance to share in man's pleasures ; and she 
quickly improved them by driving out much of the drunken- 




Castle of Falaise. 



ness and rude manners. Commerce began to bring in the 
rich furs of the North and the fine silks of Asia and the 
wrought gold of home manufacture. With such adorn- 
ments, the women soon cast a spell of loveliness and beauty 
over the Hfe of the castles. 

A Banquet in the Castle. — Women were present at 
festivals and tournaments, and sat among the men in the 
halls of their castles. A story of those days tells of a great 
feast, where eight hundred knights had each of them a 



156 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

lady eating off his plate. For to eat off the same plate 
was then a sign of friendship. Lords and ladies often gath- 
ered in the great hall of the castle for a banquet. Tables 
were loaded down with roast pork, hams, sausages, beef, 
poultry, and game of all kinds. The feast sometimes con- 
tinued several days. Minstrels came from far and near 
with their songs and stories. Some of them played aU 
sorts of instruments. There were jugglers who performed 
feats. They tumbled, turned somersaults, and leaped 
through hoops, placed a certain distance apart. They 
played with knives, sHngs, baskets, balls, and plates ; they 
walked on their hands with their feet in the air. Even 
women sometimes became acrobats. There were also court 
fools, who were often dv/arfs or comically deformed. They 
were dressed ridiculously as clowns are to-day. There were 
rope walkers, too, some of whom even danced upon a rope. 
Games and Sports. — The people of the castles played 
games of chance such as dice. Chess and backgammon 
were also favorite indoor games. Dancing was likewise 
popular in society, even though it was forbidden by the 
Catholic Church. A favorite sport in the Dark Ages was 
hunting. Kings, nobles, knights, and ladies all vied with one 
another in the chase. Animals were often brought in from 
foreign countries to stock the woods, or to be used in catching 
other animals. They used the hound and hawk in the 
chase, and also the leopard and panther from Africa. The 
sportsmen rode across the country, preceded by their 
dogs, each hunter with a leopard sitting behind him on the 
saddle. When the dogs started the game, the leopard 
was let loose. He sprang from the horse, and as he caught 
the game, the hunter galloped up and threw the leopard a 
piece of raw meat, for which he gave up his prey and re- 
mounted behind his master. 



CASTLE LIFE 



157 



Hunting with Hawks. — Another delight of the nobles of 
the Middle Ages was falconry or hunting with a hawk. 
When a knight went hawking, he carried his falcon sitting 
on his wrist. It was fastened by a stout cord or chain, and 
its head was covered with a hood. When game was started, 
the falcon was unhooded and sent after its prey. Hawking 
was held in such esteem that a nobleman or his lady never 




A Sport of the Day. 



appeared in public without a bird on the wrist as a mark of 
dignity. Even bishops and abbots entered the churches 
with their hunting birds, which they placed on the steps of 
the altar during the service. Everybody of importance had 
hunting birds of some sort to keep up his rank. 

Training the Bird. — "To train the bird, he was first 
made fearless of men, horses, and dogs. Then a string was 
fastened to one leg, and the bird was allowed to fly a short 



158 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

distance, when he was brought back to the Inre or mock bird, 
where he always found a dainty bit of food. Then the 
hunter would throw down a wounded partridge close by, 
and let the falcon loose to catch it. It was at once taken 
from him, and he was rewarded by choice food again. If 
the bird was to hunt hares, a stuffed hare within which was 
food, was dragged before the bird." 

The Value of a Falcon. — A well-trained falcon was a 
bird of great value and was the finest present that could be 
made to a lady or a noble, or to the king himself. The 
arrival at court of a hawk dealer from a foreign country was 
a great event. In the fourteenth century there were so many 
nobles who hawked that in the rooms of inns there were 
perches made under the large mantelpieces, on which to place 
the birds while the sportsmen were at dinner. Emperors 
and kings were as keen as others for this amusement. 

The Tournament. — Another favorite entertainment of 
knights was the tournament. In the early days the tourna- 
ment was a rough and violent sport, wherein knights fought 
with weapons with dulled points and edges. Still we read 
of a tournament in Germany where sixty knights were 
killed. The iron men of those days loved to measure 
strength, one against the other, with sword strokes, lance 
thrusts, or mace blows. In later days this extreme rough- 
ness was done away with. 

The Field or List. — The tournament took place in a 
large square or circle, marked out near some castle or abbey. 
The field was decorated with ornaments and gay-colored 
banners. There were stands roofed for the shelter of per- 
sons of rank in bad weather. Here were stationed princes 
and judges and, sometimes, kings and queens. 

Only Honorable Knights Enter. — The knights who were 
to take part had their banners and coats of arms hung 



CASTLE LIFE 



159 



upon the walls of the monastery or castle near by, and these 
were inspected by nobles and ladies. If a lady had a com- 
plaint against any knight who was about to enter the sport, 
she touched his banner. Then an inquiry was made, and 




A Tournament. 



if the knight were found guilty, he was forbidden to appear 
at the tournament. 

Entering the Field. — The squires came into the arena 
for a trial of strength as a prelude to the real tournament. 



i6o DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

The squires fought with less dangerous weapons, and those 
who made a fine showing were soon knighted. Then came 
the knights with slow and solemn procession, all magnifi- 
cently armed and equipped, and followed by their squires. 
Each lady had given a scarf or a veil to her favorite knight. 




Conferring Knighthood on the Field of Battle. 

This was placed on his shield or helmet, so that his lady 
might be able to recognize him. 

The Combat. — When the knights in full armor rode at 
each other at full speed with leveled spears, there was great 
shouting ; and every brilliant stroke brought loud applause. 
As the lady saw her favorite getting the best of his opponent 
she threw coins to the crowd, whereat they set up a tre- 



CASTLE LIFE i6i 

mendous shouting. When the combat was over, the judges 
declared the victors. The prizes were given by the ladies, 
and the winners were dressed in splendid clothes. Later 
the victors were celebrated in poems and songs. Victory 
at a tournament was attended with more glory than a 
victory upon the real battlefield, because no battle could be 
viewed by such distinguished witnesses. 

The Weapons. — In the later tournaments the weapons 
were pointless and often of wood, and the laws bound the 
knights to strike only upon the strong armor of the body. 
Still the combat often ended in wounds and death. The 
church objected to the sport, but in vain. 

What Knighthood Taught the People. — This system of 
knighthood, or chivalry, taught the people of the Middle 
Ages many good lessons. It taught the sacredness of reli- 
gion, of respect for women, and of honor. It taught the 
knights to be just and to defend the weak from the strong. 
It taught men to be loyal, for to break a promise was a 
disgrace. A knight who was not courteous was a brute to 
be barred from good society. Knights were expected to be 
generous, to distribute wealth to minstrels, to poor knights, 
and to the common people who were suffering. 

Knighthood Disappears. — When gunpowder was in- 
vented, it did away with knights in armor, for no knight 
could wear steel armor thick enough to protect him from a 
powder-driven bullet. Foot soldiers could then defeat 
mounted knights. Thus knighthood and chivalry, having 
taught the world all the lessons they could teach, and being 
no longer needed, disappeared along with tournaments. 



1 62 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

QUESTIONS 

Amusements at Castle — i . Discuss the banquets, the games, and 
dancing. 2. Why was hunting so popular? 3. Where did they 
hunt? 4. How? 5. Of what use were the leopard and falcon? 
6. How were these birds trained? 7. What was a tournament? 
8. Where was it held ? 9. Who took part ? 10. Describe a combat. 
II. How did a page spend his time? 12. How did he become a 
squire ? 13. What were the duties of a squire ? 14. How did a 
squire become a knight? 15. What were the duties of a knight? 
16. What happened to a false knight ? 17. What did the women in 
the castle do? 18. WTiat did knighthood teach the people ? 19. What 
caused knighthood to decHne ? 20. Why ? 



CHAPTER XII 
HOW THE PEOPLE LIVED 

The Manor. — • Most people in the Dark Ages grouped 
themselves, largely according to kin, in villages that con- 
tained a score or more of houses. Each village was sur- 
rounded by plowlands, meadows, pastures, and woods. 
The village and its near-by land was called a manor or a vill. 
The whole country was broken up into manors, each of 
which belonged to some lord or abbot. 

The Manor House. — Nor far from the village stood the 
lord's castle, or manor house, with its halls for holding 
court, its court yard, its houses for cooking and brewing, 
and its farm buildings. Near by was an orchard and a gar- 
den. The village and manor house were usually built near 
a stream, whose current was used to run the mill that ground 
corn for all the people of the manor. In each village was 
also a church and a parsonage. 

The Houses of the Village. — The houses of the village 
were mostly dirty hovels, one-roomed and thatch-roofed, 
with a hole in the roof, like that of an Indian wigwam, for 
smoke to go out and light to come in. Even in the well-to- 
do houses, glass was rare. When there were windows, they 
were covered with oiled linen cloth, or paper that admitted 
a little light and kept out the snow and rain. The poor had 
a fire in the middle of the house, and the wife and children 
hovered about it in the ashes and dirt. They slept on 
straw for a bed, with mats of bearskin or the skins of ani- 
mals for warmth. The stable for cattle was often under the 

163 



1 64 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 




HOW THE PEOPLE LIVED 165 

same roof with the house. Carpets were unknown. There 
were no floors, but the ground was covered with straw or 
rushes. When the straw became old and worn out, it was 
not removed, but simply covered with a fresh layer. This 
must have had something to do with the frequent and awful 
plagues of those times. 

Furniture. — The furniture was rude ; rough-hewn 
benches and stools were used instead of chairs. The drink- 
ing cups were of horn or wood. Sometimes gourds were 
used. 

People were Farmers. — Behind each house of the vil- 
lage was usually an orchard of apples and pears, and a 
small garden in which grew cabbages, onions, parsnips, and 
carrots, but no potatoes, for the original home of the potato 
was America, and America was still unknown to Europeans. 

Since the roads were so poor, and there were robbers 
everywhere in hiding, there could be little trade or com- 
merce. The village tried to produce everything that it 
needed so to be free from the uncertainties and expense of 
trade. Save a blacksmith, a shoemaker, and a carpenter, 
all the villagers were farmers. Their tools were rude, and 
very poor crops were raised. They did not fertilize the 
land with plant food, so the fields had to lie unused every 
third year, to rest. The farmers seldom got more than six 
or eight bushels of wheat or rye from an acre, and two 
bushels of this had to be kept for seed. To-day an acre 
of the same land yields thirty or more bushels. Sometimes 
there was a crop failure, which caused a famine, for there 
was no way to get food from abroad. In such times the 
people were forced to live on acorns, roots, and bark ; and 
great numbers starved. In years of good harvest the 
people lived better, but they had not learned to save 
for the days of famine. 



i66 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Everybody Held Land. — The villagers all held their 
land from the lord of the castle or manor, and they paid 
him rent in produce, or in day's labor upon the fields that 
he kept for his own use. The amount of land held by each 
villager varied from a hundred or more acres to a small 
strip of ground. Some had only a patch of garden and a 
cottage to dwell in, and these were called cotters. 

Farms Scattered in Strips. — Strangely a man's farm was 
not all in one piece, but was made up of a strip here and a 
strip there, and one yonder. These several separate strips 
of land were scattered in different fields among those of 
other farmers. Because of this, the farmers cultivated their 
crops in common, with a plow team of eight or twelve 
oxen, for the plow was rude and heavy. Each villager 
brought his single ox, or yoke of oxen, as his part of the team. 

The Pasture and the Meadow. — There was a common 
pasture land, where all might pasture their cows and horses ; 
and the woods fed droves of pigs with beechnuts and acorns. 
But perhaps the most valuable land of all was the meadow, 
where wild grass was cut with a rude scythe. This wild 
hay was in great demand to feed the stock through the long 
winters. These villagers knew nothing of timothy, or clover, 
or alfalfa. Most of the cattle, hogs, and sheep had to be 
killed and salted down in the fall, for lack of feed to win- 
ter them on. It is said, " Those that survived were often 
so weak in the spring that they had to be dragged to pas- 
ture on a sledge." 

Articles Brought in by Traders. — For preserving their 
meat through the winter, salt was brought from the salt 
works on the seashore, where it was obtained by evaporating 
sea water in huge pans. Another article that had to be 
obtained abroad and brought in was iron for weapons and 
farm tools. In addition, millstone and tar, to keep mur- 



HOW THE PEOPLE LIVED 



167 



rain from the sheep, were imported. The churches needed 
certain things that were not made in the village ; and the 
nobles obtained wine, spices, and fur from abroad. Trade 
was carried on by peddlers, who carried their wares on 
their backs or on pack animals. 

Slave Trade. — There was one kind of property that was 
easily transported, and that was slaves. Chained together, 
they were often driven in troops of a hundred or more, 




Manor House. 

from country to country. King Alfred made a law to 
keep a father from seUing his daughter to servitude among 
strange people. 

Food. — The food of the plain people was coarse and 
limited to a few dishes. Wheat bread was only for the well- 
to-do, the poor having white bread only on feast days. 
Bread made of barley was more common. The poor man 
had to be content with bread made of a mixture of rye, 
oats, and beans, which was dark and tough. Leaven or 
yeast was unknown ; and so the bread was heavy. It had 



1 68 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

to be baked thin and was used for plates to cut other food 
on. When this bread plate became softened with sauce 
and gravy, it was cut up and eaten as cake. The rich 
had ovens for baking, but the poor used an iron plate or a 
covered iron dish, surrounded by hot coals. They might 
use the lord's oven if they were able to pay the toll. 

Meat, the Food of the Well-to-do. — Wliile the poor 
must live largely on black bread and cabbages, the rich 
ate meat — chiefly pork in winter, because it was best 
fitted for salting down. If a servant ate meat of his own 
accord, he was fined or " made to suffer in his hide." Lords, 
bishops, and abbots had great droves of swine for them- 
selves. Even in the towns every family had a pig or two, 
which were allowed to roam the streets. Fish was much 
used for food, and the rivers were then more plentifully 
stocked with them than now. Sea fish were not caught, 
because the people had not learned how. 

Preserving Meat. — Salt was expensive in the Dark Ages 
on account of the long haul, or the carriage on horseback 
over mud roads. It was used so scantily in salting down 
meat for winter's use that the bacon often became rancid 
and the ham covered with maggots long before the winter 
was over. For months at a time fresh meat could not be 
had, and so much salt food was a cause of disease. 

Honey Instead of Sugar. — Sugar was unknown. Every- 
body who could kept bees for honey. So precious were 
swarms of bees that they were left by will to favored chil- 
dren or friends. In summer new swarms were often sold 
before they came from the hive. The woods were searched 
for bee trees ; and the night when such a tree was cut 
down was one of great merriment. 

What the People Drank. — The people of the Dark Ages 
drank beer. Every lord and bishop and abbot had his 



HOW THE PEOPLE LIVED 



169 



brewery. The French had two kinds of beer — one made 
from grains and honey for the rich, the other made without 
honey for the poor. Cider was also a common drink. 
Wealthy people made and drank wines. Coffee and tea 
were unknown. 
The people sat at 
table to eat. They 
had knives and 
spoons but no forks. 
Clothing and 
Fashions. — The 
workers wore hardly 
any clothing. Their 
arms and legs were 
free. They wore 
but one garment, 
which reached to 
the knee. It was 
held at the waist 
with a belt of rope 
or leather, in which 
was worn a knife 
for hacking bread 
or stabbing an 
enemy. For a long 
time it was the 
fashion in England 
to wear a full 

beard. The hair was worn long. Nobles swore by their 
hair. It was thought to be the height of politeness to pull 
out a hair and present it to a person. Sometimes a king 
or a bishop, who had been on a long journey, carried home 
a handful of hair. 




Costumes of that Day. 



lyo DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

People Unclean. — No one pretended to keep clean, even 
in the castles. People passed the days and nights in the 
same clothes. They wore the same woolen, fur, or leather 
garments for a lifetime, and then bequeathed them to 
others to wear. They slept under uncleansed sheepskins 
upon musty straw in windowless and airless rooms, which 
were damp and full of disease. Their narrow, crooked alleys 




Conway Castle. 

or streets were piled with all sorts of refuse ; and the mire 
was often knee-deep to men and beasts. The drinking 
water was from wells that were often polluted by street 
water. In dark, damp dungeons under the castles, prisoners 
were starved to death and their bodies were never taken 
out. Every church was full of corpses, for they usually 
buried the dead within the church. It is not surprising 
that great plagues swept over the land, sometimes destroy- 
ing half the population. The wonder is that any people 



HOW THE PEOPLE LIVED 171 

lived through such unsanitary conditions. Children must 
have died by the thousands. Those who lived, suffered 
from itch, scurvy, ringworm, and a score of diseases. At 
the gates of every town were many lepers, covered with 
loathsome sores and begging for food. 

Cruel and Barbarous Laws. — The laws of the land in the 
Dark Ages were merciless and terribly cruel. The most 
horrible tortures imaginable were practiced. One writer 
says that there were fourteen different ways of inflicting 
torture, some of which were many degrees worse than those 
practiced by the American Indians. Men were hanged 
for the merest trifles ; and they were hanged in such ap- 
palling numbers, that the gallows was seldom allowed to 
remain long out of use. Evildoers were often mangled 
and their bodies torn asunder. Many were branded with 
red-hot irons or burned at the stake with shocking 
cruelty. 

Criminals Numerous. — Still crime raged everywhere. 
These tortures and hangings only made the people savage 
and bloodthirsty. " A violent ruffian knew if he robbed a 
man he would be hanged, and that if he murdered him, the 
punishment could be no worse. He had nothing to gain 
by letting him live, and nothing to lose, if he cut his throat. 
Rather than be captured, he might as well make a good 
fight and kill as many as stood in his way of escape." 

Church Laws. — The church claimed the right to try in 
its own courts all members of the clergy, no matter what 
their crime was ; and the punishments inflicted by the 
church courts were very mild and lenient. The church 
taught that it was wrong to hurry a man to death with his 
sins and crimes fresh upon him. He should at least be 
given time to repent. Christ had been a noble example of 
forgiveness and mercy. So the church set itself against the 



172 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

cruelties and wholesale slaughter of evildoers ; and in this 
way it helped to check the worst of the punishments. 

Clerics. — Men who could get enough learning, hastened 
to become clerics, that is, members of the lower order of 
priesthood. In this way they might secure the protection 
of the church court if they ever got into trouble. Many 
became clerics for no other reason ; and so the country 
swarmed with them — lawyers, clerks, secretaries: any- 
body who had a little learning. 

Hard Lot of Serfs. — Excepting the nobles, knights, and 
clerics, all the people were villains, or serfs. Some had the 
use of more land than others and more rights, perhaps, but 
the lot of all was miserable enough. A man or woman 
born in villainage could never shake it off. They might 
not even go away from the manor where they were born ; 
they were not allowed to marry without the lord's license, 
and for this they had to pay. Their only hope of freedom 
was to be made clerics, for clerics were always free. In Eng- 
land a serf might not purchase his own hberty, but a son 
might buy his father's freedom, and this meant hberty for 
the whole family. If a serf ran away, he might be caught 
and brought back like a common slave, but in later times, 
if he escaped to a town and Hved there for a year and a day, 
he was free. So the towns became more and more a shelter 
for the run-away \^llain or serf. 

Amusements. — The lord and knights of the castle had 
many amusements ; in fact they divided their time between 
fighting and playing, for they never worked. But the serfs 
had very little leisure, since they had to work hard to feed 
and clothe the lord and his many knights of the castle. 
What time was left the peasant, he must use to keep his 
own family from starving. Still there was some pleasure 
for him, for he occasionally gave chase to a fox or a rabbit, 



HOW THE PEOPLE LIVED 173 

and dug it from its burrow. Wandering minstrels some- 
times came to the villages and, with rude musical instru- 
ments, sang coarse songs, which amused the people. They 
cared more for the words than for the music. The working 
people also enjoyed seeing the gay nobles and knights 
passing back and forth between castles on horseback. 
Occasionally there was a feast in the village, where wrestHng 
matches took place. There was also a queer combat with 
sticks. Two men, each bhndfolded and armed with a 
stick, entered the arena and went round and round trying 
to strike a fat goose or a pig, which was let loose with them. 
Most of the blows of these blindfolded men fell on each 
other, amidst the shouts of laughter from the spectators. 
Nothing amused our ancestors more than these bhnd com- 
bats. 

QUESTIONS 

Manor — i. What was the manor? 2. Give other names for it. 
3. Describe the manor house. 4. Describe the houses of the village 
and the furniture in them. 5. What occupations did the people 
follow? 6. Why these? 7. Who owned the land? 8. What was 
peculiar about the farms? 9. What difficulty had they with their 
cattle ? 

Foods — 10. Give the kinds of foods used. 11. How were they 
preserved? 12. How cooked? 13. What effect had these foods 
upon their health? 14. How did they make their drinks? 
15. Describe their clothing. 16. What caused such awful plagues? 
17. What laws were there ? 18. Who made them? 19. What was 
the effect of these laws ? 20. In what way did many people escape 
punishment ? 21. How did the church influence these laws ? 
22. Who were the clerks ? 23. Who were the villains ? 24. What is 
a villain to-day ? 25. Can you see how our meaning to-day grew out 
of the old meaning ? 26. What kind of life did the serf lead ? 



CHAPTER XIII 
COMMERCE IN THE DARK AGES 

Bad Roads and Commerce. — During the Dark Ages the 
roads were so bad that it was almost impossible to transport 
goods from place to place on land. The roads were often 
mere trails through the woods and could be traversed only 
on horseback, the use of wagons being almost out of the 
question. Even as late as 1300, roads continued poor in- 
deed, and goods were still generally carried on the backs of 
animals. It took four horses or eight oxen to drag a wagon 
through the mud in winter. Nearly everybody traveled on 
horseback or afoot. 

Water Transportation. — There were few bridges, and 
travelers had to ford streams on horseback ; or, if the river 
was too deep, a clumsy ferryboat was used. It was much 
easier to transport goods by water, even though the distance 
was greater, because a single boat could carry as much as 
could five hundred pack animals. But river navigation 
was often hindered by mill dams and fishweirs. 

Robbers. — Merchants, however, suffered more from bad 
men than from bad roads. Robbers were so common that 
all strangers had to be watched. There was an old Enghsh 
law that read, " If a man come from afar, or a stranger go 
out of the highway, and he then neither shout nor blow a 
horn, he is to be accounted a thief, either to be slain or to 
be redeemed." So great was the danger from robbers that 
merchants were forced to go in company with others, all 
being well-armed. 

174 



COMMERCE IN THE DARK AGES 175 

Robber Barons. — The numerous feudal lords were also 
a great hindrance to trade, because they frequently sheltered 
outlaws and robber knights in return for a share of the 
plunder. Sometimes the lords, themselves, turned robbers. 




A Ship of the Middle Ages. 

Tolls. — All the feudal lords tried to enrich themselves 
by taxing the merchants who passed through their lands. 
Such taxes were called tolls, and were levied everywhere 
on all kinds of goods. " Even an organ grinder could not 
pass the gates of Paris without making his monkey show 
off to pay his own way." Everywhere along routes of com- 
merce were monasteries and castles, and each was a toll 
station where the merchant must stop and pay a tax on his 



176 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

wares. In the fourteenth century there were seventy-four 
toll stations along the Loire River in France. One merchant 
shipped some cloth from P,aris to the East. He stopped 
at every station and paid his tax. By accident the cloth 
was wet and had to be sent back to Paris to be redyed, 
and everywhere along the road the merchant had to pay 
the tolls again. 

Why Tolls were Paid. — For all these taxes the merchant 
got nothing in return except the right to look out for him- 
self. The tolls were supposed to pay the lord to protect the 
merchant and to take care of the roads and bridges ; but 
the feudal lords pocketed the money and did nothing in 
return. After a time the lords even refused to allow new 
and better roads to be built, for fear the merchants would 
quit using the old roads that were lining their pockets with 
gold. " A man had to pay toll, not only when he went over 
a bridge ; he had to pay toll when he went under it, and 
could not escape the toll by going around it." When such 
taxes were added to the cost of wares, they made the price 
of the goods so high that the merchant often could not 
sell them for what they cost him, and thus many were 
driven out of business by these never ending tax stations. 

Loss of Time. — Besides loss in money there was loss of 
time in having to stop and unpack goods at each station. 
Many times this caused the merchant t6 reach his market 
too late. " The monks of a certain monastery near Paris 
took three pennyworths from each horseload that passed by, 
and on fast days they spent so much time in selecting their 
fish that the rest of the load spoiled before it reached Paris." 

Money Scarce. — There was also very little money in 
use, and this caused many hardships to the merchant, who 
had to barter or exchange one ware for another, when he 
would have much preferred money to the article received. 



COMMERCE IN THE DARK AGES 177 

Not only was money scarce, but there were many different 
kinds. Every petty lord had his own money coined for 
his little hef. Traders found much false money and many 
coins short in weight. 

Trade Grows. — However, in spite of bad roads and 
robber barons, in spite of tolls and bad money, or none at 
all, commerce grew slowly and became a little safer after 
the year 1000. Then some of the villages, because of their 
trade, begn to grow into towns, with several hundred, or 
even several thousand people. 

Serfs Obtain Freedom or Rights. — Since the people in 
towns were all free, there was a strong temptation to serfs 
to run away from their lords on the manors and to flock into 
the towns, where they became free after a year. The lords 
of the manors and fiefs were fast losing their workers, so 
they were compelled to give their serfs better treatment in 
order to keep any of them. Thus the serfs came to have 
some rights. 

Where Towns Grew. — Since towns could not thrive 
without peace and protection, they often grew up near a 
great castle or monastery, where the strong hand of a lord 
or abbot afforded them shelter. We find the largest towns 
springing up mainly along some line of travel, on a river 
or by a good harbor on the sea coast, where merchants were 
able to reach them safely with goods. Wherever merchants 
were likely to stop on their journey and exchange wares, 
as at a ford or a bridge or a ferry, was also a place for a* 
town to grow. We still have towns named after such 
places as Ox-ford and Cam-bridge. 

Still Like Villages. — While the towns were different 
from villages, yet they had grown from villages and kept 
many village features. Most of the townspeople owned some 
land which they used for gardens, and outside each town 



1 78 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

was considerable plow and pasture land, which was largely 
owned and worked by people of the town. The towns 
were not large. First-class towns of those times had, on an 
average, not more than five thousand people, while very 
few had so many as ten thousand. 

Appearance of Towns. — The streets were narrow and 
crooked, having been built along trails. Some of the 







An Old Street in Worcester. 



greatest streets of London are said to have been built 
along cowpaths. Streets were not paved, and all kinds 
of lilth and garbage were piled in them. This is perhaps 
why the people wore wooden overshoes when they went 
out. All houses were of wood. Fires were frequent and 
very destructive, for there was neither city water nor a 
fire department. Wares were exposed for sale, either in 
the open market place, or in a Uttle shop hke a peddler's 
booth at the front of the house. There was no pohce pro- 
tection, and towns were sinks of crime as well as of disease. 



COMMERCE IN THE DARK AGES 179 

Labor Began to be Divided. — It was impossible for a 
shoemaker to sell more than two or three dozen pairs of 
shoes a year in a village, because there were so few people 
near by. So he had to support his family partly by farming. 
But as the population grew from a village to a town, one 
man could sell enough shoes to keep him busy. Another 
was kept occupied as a blacksmith or a carpenter ; and many 
others were employed as weavers, dyers, and tailors. Then 
there came to be expert workmen with better tools. A man 
who spent all his time at one kind of work could make 
better goods and more of them. The comforts and con- 
veniences of life became cheaper. 

Different Crafts. — As the towns grew, the work of life 
was divided more and more, and the different kinds of 
skilled workmen increased. Butchers, brewers, and bakers 
were kept busy feeding the people, while the need of clothing 
called for tanners, furriers, and tailors. People must have 
houses and furniture, too ; so there was a demand for 
bricklayers, masons, carpenters, and cabinet makers. Still 
others made tools and wagons, or saddles and harnesses. 
The coppersmiths of those days become the tinners of our 
time. It was the work of fullers to improve the texture of 
cloth after it had been woven, by beating and washing it 
with fuller's earth, a kind of clay that absorbs the grease 
from the wool. 

Craft Guilds. — The men who lived by these crafts be- 
came organized in craft guilds, or societies, which were 
somewhat like our labor unions to-day. Every trade had 
its guild composed of the workers of that trade. There was 
a weaver's guild, a baker's guild, guilds for shoemakers, 
tanners, coopers, and so on. In one city there might be 
fifty or more of such unions. Each brotherhood of workers 
had its guild hall, where the men of the craft met to make 



i8o DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

the rules governing the members, an-d for banquets and other 
social events. No citizen of the town could make or sell 
any kind of goods unless he belonged to the proper guild. 
Neither could a man come into a town from other cities 
or countries and sell, without special permission from the 
guild. Each guild had three classes of members : the masters, 
journeymen, and apprentices. 

Apprentices. — When a boy wished to become a carpenter, 
a blacksmith, or a skilled worker of any kind, he bound him- 
self to a master of that craft as an apprentice. He was re- 
quired to serve him without pay for a term of three, seven, 
or ten years, according to the law of the guild. The mas- 
ter furnished him food and clothing and taught him the 
trade. 

Journeymen and Master Workmen. — After his appren- 
ticeship he became a free journeyman with the right to go 
anywhere and practice his craft for pay, but still under some 
master. The journeyman often traveled about for a few 
years among different cities, working and seeing the world. 
When at last he had proven his skill in the trade by some 
*' masterpiece " fine enough to be accepted by the craft 
guild, he became a master workman. Then he might own 
a shop, which was usually a part of his dwelling, and employ 
journeymen, or take apprentices. As a master he continued 
to work with his hands among the journeymen and appren- 
tices of his shop. 

The Object of Guilds. — The guilds had several objects. 
They fixed the prices of the products that they made, and 
no member might cut prices, nor was any one allowed to 
sell goods except at the appointed times and places. No 
master was allowed to buy cheaper raw materials than his 
fellows. So they had a rule that any member had a right 
to share in the purchase of another by paying his portion. 



COMMERCE IN THE DARK AGES i8i 

If a master weaver bought wool very cheap, he was re- 
quired to share his purchase at the same price with any 
brother who desired it. Thus there was no competition 
in either buying or selHng. Strict rules were made to 
keep up the quality and to regulate the size and weight of 
goods. The guild was a great help to its members. When 
a member became poor or ill, he was given assistance. If 
he died in poverty, his funeral expenses were paid, and his 
family was not allowed to suffer. 

How Guilds Served the People. — -The rules of the guilds 
were strict. If an article was not made according to their 
rules, it was called "false." For such " false work " mem- 
bers were fined. One half of the fine money went to the 
town and the rest to the guild. If a member continued 
his " false work " and was caught the fourth time, he was 
expelled from the guild. Fines were imposed also for put- 
ting better goods at the top of a bale or basket than below, 
for moistening groceries to make them weigh heavier, for 
selling second-hand furs for new, for soldering broken 
swords, for selling sheep leather for doe leather, and for 
mixing poor wool with good. There were fines for all kinds 
of dishonesty in work and business. 

Labor and Capital. — The guilds were unHke our labor 
unions in this, that both laborers and employers belonged 
to them. There was always a friendly spirit between the 
workers and the owners of the shops, for both had a voice 
in fixing the wages of labor as well as the price at which 
goods were to be sold. Thus there was no such thing as 
a strike or a lockout. The man with money to use, and 
the man with labor to sell, joined hands to get the best 
market for both. Such good feeling is sadly needed to- 
day. Laborers then took a deeper interest in their craft, 
and they turned out high-class products of which they might 



1 82 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 




COMMERCE IN THE DARK AGES 183 

well feel proud. There was a high sense of honor and 
honesty in good work that the world misses now. 

Merchants' Guilds. — Merchants had formed guilds for 
their protection long before the craftsmen did. Their 
guilds came about in this way. The dangers from the 
robbers and outlaws forced them to form bands when they 
went on journeys, like the caravans of to-day in countries 
of the East. They made such rules as these: Every one 
was obliged to carry armor, a bow and twelve arrows, on 
penalty of a fine. They must stand by to help one another 
when they set out upon a journey. In case one member 
had not sold his wares, the others must wait for him one day. 
If one was imprisoned, the others must ransom him. These 
bands of traders grew into merchants' guilds, or unions, 
which came to be a part of town government, and the town 
used the guilds in pushing its trade against its rival towns. 

Rights of Trade Guilds. — To these trade guilds belonged 
all merchants, butchers, and fishermen. They had the 
exclusive right of trading within the town. Merchants 
from other towns might bring in goods and sell them whole- 
sale, but they were forbidden to keep shop and sell at retail. 
The government of the town was entirely in the hands of 
the guilds, and there was often great strife between the mer- 
chants' or trade guilds, and the craft guilds. Sometimes 
bloodshed resulted. The unskilled, or common workers, 
had no voice in the town governments. 

Laws About Trade. — The only way to be sure that 
strange traders had not stolen their goods was to require 
witnesses to be present when bargains or trades were made. 
In this way merchants could prove that they had come 
honestly by their wares. Cattle and swine were, in those 
dark times, the chief riches of men, and they could easily be 
stolen ; strict laws were made stating where and when cattle 



184 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 




COMMERCE IN THE DARK AGES 185 

could be bought or sold. If a merchant could not prove 
that he had purchased his cattle or goods, he was treated 
as a thief . Such, laws were a great help to honest dealers. 

The Market. — Another advantage given to town mer- 
chants was that of a market. The townspeople would not 
allow traders or farmers to come to town singly and sell their 
produce, because they might charge too much for it, or they 
might take all business from the town shopkeepers. So 
the towns established certain days called market days, 
perhaps one or two a week, and a certain market place ; and 
all country people with articles to dispose of were required 
to sell only on market day and at the market place. They 
even tried to force farmers to sell out before the market 
closed. This plan, it was believed, would keep prices low. 
After the famihes had purchased enough for their needs, 
shopkeepers were allowed to buy goods to retail from their 
shops during the rest of the week. 

Import Taxes. — Each town made such laws about trade 
as would give the home people the advantage over those 
from other towns. They taxed all goods brought in. One 
of London's laws was: " Every load of poultry that comes 
upon a horse shall pay three farthings." Sometimes when 
a certain article was scarce and dear, the town tried to 
prevent such goods from being shipped away by placing on 
them a tax called an export tax. Or they made such trade 
unlawful. Thus, " No butcher, or wife of a butcher, shall 
sell tallow or lard to a strange person for carrying to the 
parts beyond the sea ; by reason of the great dearness and 
scarcity that has been thereof in the city of late." 

Fairs. — In addition to their market days once or twice 
a week, the towns had fairs, which occurred once a year, and 
sometimes oftener. To these fairs, traders and merchants 
came long distances, even from other countries. The fair 



1 86 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

grew up under the protection of some feudal lord or abbot, or 
possibly a bishop, who was to have the taxes collected here. 
The fairs were usually held just outside the town limits in an 
open field. The owner of the fair built wooden booths or 
stalls in long rows, and, as the merchants came, they were 
given places according to the country that they came from, 
or the kind of goods that they had to sell. While the fair 
was going on, all buying and selling was forbidden in the 
near-by towns. Tolls were collected for the lord on all 
goods brought in or taken out of the grounds. Rent was 
also paid for the booths and for the use of the lord's weights 
and scales. A court was held on the grounds to settle dis- 
putes and to enforce honest dealing. 

Fairs Encourage Social Life. — People came to these 
fairs for pleasure as well as for business. There were " side 
shows " of all kinds — wild animals, trained dogs, musicians, 
actors and clowns, dancing and gambhng halls. " There was 
a chance to turn a penny dishonestly as well as honestly." 
They often lasted several weeks, and then the merchants 
packed up and trudged away to some other fair. At last 
the greedy owners taxed the merchants who came so heavily 
that they could make no profit ; and so fairs grew smaller 
and fewer and finally died out altogether. 

QUESTIONS 

Commerce — i. Why was there so Httle trade? 2. Discuss land 
travel. 3. Discuss water transportation. 4. Why were there so 
many robbers? 5. Where were tolls paid? 6. Why? 7. How 
did these tolls affect the price of goods ? 8. Why ? 9. What was 
paid for goods ? 10. Describe the towns — where did they spring 
up? II. Why? 12. What is the meaning of "Labor began to be 
divided"? 13. What was gained by it? 14. Was anything lost? 
15. What were the craft guilds? 16. Who belonged? 17. What 



COMMERCE IN THE DARK AGES 187 

rights had these guilds ? 18. What laws were made about trade ? 
19. Why? 20. Describe the market place. 21. Describe the 
market day. 22. Of what value was this market? 23. What are 
export and import duties? 24. Why are they laid? 25. Do we 
have them to-day ? 26. Who really pays an import duty ? 27. Who 
planned the fairs ? 28. Why ? 29. What business was done there ? 
30. What pleasures were there? 31. What good came from 
them? 



CHAPTER XIV 
MOHAMMED AND THE MOORS 

The Early Arabs. — About a century after Clovis built 
up the empire of the Franks, and while Augustine was 
preaching to the Saxons in Britain, there was growing up a 
strange, new kingdom in the deserts of Arabia. Hitherto 
the Arabs had never come much into public notice. Their 
ignorant and scattered tribes were usually busy making 
war on one another. They were heathen, each tribe having 
its own idols. 

A New Prophet. — But now a great man arose among 
them — Mohammed, who was to do wonderful things for 
his people. Mohammed was born at Mecca, the chief 
city of the desert country. He was of noble family, but he 
early became penniless. In his youth he was a shepherd, 
watching the flocks by night as did Moses and Abraham. 
Later he entered the service of a wealthy widow as camel 
driver and led caravans across the desert for trade. He 
proved to be a shrewd merchant and became wealthy. Later 
he married his employer. As he traveled into Palestine 
and elsewhere to trade he saw much of the Christian civiKza- 
tion of other countries and he resolved to raise his people 
above their idols. 

Mohammed's Vision. — He claimed that the angel 
Gabriel appeared while he was once praying in the desert, 
and revealed to him a new and higher religion. This new 
religion taught that there is but one God, and that Moham- 
med is His prophet. Many of the better teachings of this 

i88 



MOHAMMED AND THE MOORS 189 

new faith were drawn from the rehgion of the Christian 
and the Jew. It taught that Abraham, Moses, and Christ 
were true prophets, but that Mohammed was the last and 
greatest of them all. The Mohammedan rehgion was 
called Islam. It had no priests nor showy forms of worship. 
Five times a day the faithful must pray, always with their 
faces turned toward Mecca. During one month of the 




Camels of the Desert. 

year they must fast ; and all who could must make a pil- 
grimage to Mecca, the birthplace of Mohammed. 

The Koran. — From time to time Mohammed had dreams 
and visions in which more and more of the "Heavenly 
Book" was revealed to him. This he taught to his 
followers, who treasured it in their hearts. Sometimes they 
wrote it down upon pieces of pottery, or upon the shoulder 
bones of sheep or upon palm leaves. Mohammed never 
learned to read or write, but after his death his teachings 
were gathered into a book called the Koran, which became 
the Mohammedan Bible. 

The Arabs and the New Faith. — Although Mohammed 
could not read he was a wise man. He was a fluent speaker 
and preacher — a man born to lead and to rule. His 



I go DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



wife believed in his visions at once, and his friends quickly 
accepted his teachings. But his neighbors, the people of 
Mecca, jeered and scoffed at him. " Who are you? " they 
asked, " to teach a new religion? We have known you 
from your cradle, and you are no wiser than the rest of 
us." At last they plotted to kill him. Hearing this, 
Mohammed fled from Mecca in the year 622. His followers 




A Barren Desert. 

called this year the year i, and have since reckoned time 
from it, as we do from the birth of Christ. 

Taking up the Sword. — Mohammed's teachings did 
not spread very fast by mere preaching, so he now took up 
the sword. By going on the warpath he not only pro- 
tected himself, but gave his followers a purpose — something 
to do, which he thought would unite them and arouse their 
enthusiasm. " The sword," said he, " is the key of heaven. 
A drop of blood shed in the cause of God is of more avail 



MOHAMMED AND THE MOORS 



191 



than two months of prayer and fasting : whoso falls in 
battle, all his sins are forgiven ; at the day of judgment his 
wounds shall make him glorious." The Arabs knew no 
such word as fear. They took up the sword eagerly, 
rejoicing in death on the field of battle, and so fiercely did 
they fight that they carried all before them. They soon 
captured Mecca, which became their sacred city ; and in a 
few years all the people of this desert country were followers 
of Islam. 

The Califs Spread the Faith. — Mohammed Hved only 
ten years after his flight from Mecca, but his teachings had 
set the people upon a higher plane of living than they had 
ever known, and had started them on a world-wide crusade 
to spread their rehgion by the sword. At the death of the 
Apostle, his successor, who was given the title of Calif, 
continued to extend the rule of the Arabs to the north and 
the east. Palestine was for the Mohammedans, as it was for 
the Hebrews, a land of promise, flowing with milk and honey, 
and after a few years, Cahf Omar set out for Jerusalem. No 
nation of the East was able to withstand the fierce courage 
and zeal of the Arabs, and Jerusalem soon opened its gates 
to Omar, who rode into the sacred city upon a camel, carrying 
with him a bag of dates and skin of water, which supplied 
all his needs. 

The Mosque of Omar. — The Arabs respected the Chris- 
tians and allowed them to continue in their faith, but 
they were required to pay tribute to the rulers of Islam. 
Jerusalem was not destroyed because it was already holy 
ground for the Arabs. On the site of the Temple of 
Solomon Omar built a magnificent church, which was 
called later the Mosque of Omar. 

Spreading the Greek Civilization. — All Syria soon fell 
into the power of the Arabs, for the emperor of Constanti- 



192 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

nople was helpless before their fiery enthusiasm. The Arab 
readily adopted all the best things of the Greek civihzation. 
All the books of Greek learning were translated into Arabic. 
Greek knowledge of art and architecture, of the weaving of 
fine cloths, and other crafts, of agriculture, — all that was 
good the Arabs carried with them in their journey through 
Egypt and to the west, for they now turned their steps west- 




ward, and before many years they had overrun all northern 
Africa. 

The Moors Cross the Straits. —The Straits of Gibraltar 
did not check them. In the year 711 an army of Moham- 
medan Moors crossed into Spain. 

Workers Mistreated. — The people of Spain were not 
loyal to their Gothic king and nobles. These German 
overlords had never mixed with the common people, but 



MOHAMMED AND THE MOORS 193 

had held themselves above the workers, treating them as 
slaves. So now the great body of common people were un- 
willing to fight for their king. They were glad to change 
their masters because they thought things could not be 
much worse for them. 

The Jews Dissatisfied. — There were also in Spain many 
Jews, who were the wealthiest and most intelligent people 
of the cities. They had often been persecuted and robbed 
by the Gothic nobles, so they, too, were anxious to turn 
Spain over to the Moors, who belonged to their own race. 
Under the Moors, the Jews had reason to expect better 
treatment and more power. 

The Moors Victorious. — So the Gothic king, Roderick, 
and his nobles were forced to fight the Arabs and the Moors 
alone, and they were too few to hold their ground. The 
Moors fought desperately. For them, defeat would have 
meant death, as they could not retreat with the straits at 
their back. The Goths were routed and Roderick was slain. 
The great cities of. Spain yielded without a blow, and the 
country was abandoned to the Arabs and Moors. It was 
an easy victory. The Goths were driven into the Pyrenees 
Mountains, and remained here, holding their country so 
firmly by its borderland that they never were driven out. 
The Moors passed on into France, where they were beaten 
by the Franks and their advance was checked. 

Moorish Cities. — In Spain the Moors began a brilliant 
career. Large numbers came from Africa to settle here. 
The Emirs, as the Moorish rulers were called, showed them- 
selves far above the Christian princes of Europe in culture 
and civilization. Cordova became their capital. It soon 
boasted of two hundred thousand houses and more than a 
milHon people. The streets were made straight ; and it 
was said, a man might walk through the city after dark for 



194 



DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



ten miles in one direction by the light of public lamps. Even 
seven hundred years later, there was not one public street 
light in London. Cordova streets were paved and clean, 
while for centuries still to come whoever stepped into the 
streets of Paris on a rainy day sank to his ankles in mud. 




The Court of Lions, Alhambra. 

There were other large cities of the Moors as splendid as 
Cordova — Granada, Seville, and Toledo. 

The Calif's Palace. — The Mohammedans had brought 
with them the civilization and luxuries of Asia. The CaKf's 
palace at Cordova was of poUshed marble. The ceilings 



MOHAMMED AND THE MOORS 195 

were of stained glass speckled with gold. The floors were of 
beautiful mosaics, and the walls were covered with splendid 
paintings representing views of Paradise. From the ceiKngs 
hung great chandeliers, one of which held nearly two thou- 
sand lamps. There were marble columns, fountains, and 
flower gardens. The courts for children to play in were of 
marble. In winter the rooms of the palace were hung with 
rich tapestry and the floors were covered with Persian car- 
pets. The buildings were suppHed by metal pipes with hot 
and cold water for the marble baths. The CaHf's library 
was very great and grand. The catalogue alone filled forty 
volumes. There were rooms for copying, because printing 
had not yet been invented ; also rooms for binding and 
ornamenting books. 

How Christian Rulers Lived. — Such was the palace 
of the Arabs of Spain, while the rulers of England, France, 
and Germany were still living in dwellings scarcely better 
than stables, without windows, and with a hole in the roof 
for smoke to go out, like Indian wigwams. Their castles 
were dark and gloomy and had but few comforts. 

Moorish Parks. — The Moors had pleasure gardens where 
they raised flowers and fruits. They brought the peach 
and other fruits from the East. They made artificial lakes, 
where they raised fish for the table. They had a " zoo," 
in which many strange animals were to be seen. 

How They Dressed. — While the people of France, Eng- 
land, and Germany were still clothing themselves in skins 
or rude cloth, the Moors had skilled workmen weaving silk, 
cotton, linen, and all the wonders of the loom. The Moorish 
women loved finery. Frequently their outer garments were 
of silk, embroidered and decorated with gems and woven 
gold. " So fond were the Moorish women of gay colors and 
precious stones that, it is said, the interior of any building 



196 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

where they were permitted to appear looked like a flower 
garden in the spring besprinkled with rain." 

Schools and Learning. — The Spanish Califs encouraged 
schools and learning. Their great universities were filled 
with students from all over Europe. The Califs themselves 
were noted scholars, and one, at least, was the author of 
many books. Some learned men wrote on Algebra, some 
concerning Astronomy, others composed music. They even 
had a college of music with famous professors. Their 
music and poetry, especially their love songs, were later 
carried over the Pyrenees, and formed the beginning of 
poetry and literature in France and in other countries. 
The wandering minstrels of Europe copied their music and 
poetry from the Moors of Spain. 

Schools. — Every town had its library, and every mosque 
its public school, in which the children of the poor were 
taught to read and write and were instructed in the Koran 
as our children are in the Bible. There were academies for 
those who were well-to-do. In their universities the Arabs 
studied botany, which is a knowledge of plants, astronomy, 
or the knowledge of stars, and chemistry, which they used 
in medicine, for they had schools for doctors and surgeons. 
Their skillful surgeons used the knife in operations without 
any hesitation. While the Christian peasant, who was 
fever-stricken or overtaken by an accident, was hurried 
to the nearest saint shrine, where he expected to be cured 
by heaven, the Spanish Moor relied on a prescription, or 
on the knife and bandage of a surgeon. 

We Use Their Arithmetic To-day. — From India the 
Arabs learned Arithmetic, especially the nine digits : 
I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and to these the Arabs added the o. 
Europe was still using the old Roman numerals such as XIX. 
What a dreadful task it must have been to add or subtract 



MOHAMMED AND THE MOORS 197 

these numerals ! But worse still, think of a problem in 
long division or in fractions. How they must have toiled, 
to multiply MDCCCVII by XLIX ! Indeed it was such 
a task that they called these Roman numerals the " sweat- 
ing calculators." As soon as the merchants of Italy 
learned how much better the Arabic numbers were, they 




Arabian Horses. 

took them up, and the old ones largely went out of use In 
business. 

Some Things the Arabs Learned. — The Arabs became 
great students of mathematics. They believed the earth 
to be round and computed its correct size. It is said they 
were teaching geography in their schools from globes, while 
the Christians were still maintaining that the earth was 
flat. The Arabs determined that the earth's atmosphere is 
about fifty-eight miles deep, and they were correct. They 
built observatories for studying the stars, and they made 
the first clock with a pendulum, while the Christian nations 



198 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 




Minaret of Mosque of the Sultan 
Kalaun, Cairo. 



were still using the sand 
in the hourglass for 
measuring time. 

What theWest Owes 
to Them. — The Moors 
were skillful in tilling 
the soil and in raising 
fine sheep. Their 
horses are even now 
famous the world over. 
They brought into 
Spain rice, sugar, cot- 
ton, silk, and nearly 
all the fine garden and 
orchard fruits. Later 
they brought to the 
West gunpowder and 
cannon made of iron, 
and still later, the 
mariner's compass. 

The Arabs Make a 
Cheap Paper. I'he 
Arabs also taught the 
people of Europe how 
to make a cheap paper 
out of cotton or hnen. 
This was a very im- 
portant discovery for 
the world. The papy- 
rus plant used by the 
Romans had practi- 
cally disappeared, and 
it was very expensive 



MOHAMMED AND THE MOORS 199 

to make books out of sheepskins, or parchment. But 
cotton or Hnen paper was cheap ; and when the invention 
of printing came a httle later, books and learning were 
brought within the reach of the poor. Since education is 
the first step in securing rights and liberty for the poor and 
oppressed, we can see how much paper and printing meant 
to the world. 

How Could Europe be in the Dark ? — We are surprised 
to read of all this learning and civilization in Spain, while 
the other countries of Europe were in the midst of the Dark 
Ages ; but we know that the roads were poor, and that there 
was very little travel or trade. In addition, the Christians 
looked upon the Moors as hated infidels, whose learning, 
the Christians beheved, must have come from Satan. 

What the Arabs Saved for Us. — The Mohammedans 
gathered together the books, the learning, and the skill of 
all the countries that they conquered, and they added much 
to it. We are very glad indeed that they were able to 
save this learning until our rude German forefathers were 
ready to take it up and carry it forward. How much of 
the civilization of the East came through Spain and how 
much was brought back by the crusaders, we do not know ; 
but, at any rate, the Arabs and Moors did the West a great 
service. 

QUESTIONS 

Mohammed and the Moors — i . Why was so little known of the 
Arabs? 2. What was the condition of their civilization ? 3. What 
did they need ? 4. Describe Mohammed's early life. 5. This life 
led him to make what resolve ? 6. What vision did he have ? 
7. What was his attitude toward Christianity ? 8. What was his be- 
lief ? g. How was the Koran made ? 10. How did the Arabs receive 
the new faith ? 11. What did Mohammed accomplish? 12. Who 
was Cahf? 13. What was the ambition of the Mohammedans? 
14. What did they conquer? 15. What was their attitude toward 



200 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

the Christians? i6. Describe Omar's mosque. 17. What good 
qualities did these Arabs show? 18. Where did they journey? 
19. Describe their advance into Spain. 20. Who were the Moors? 
21. How do you account for their cities ? 22. Compare the homes of 
the Moors and Christians. 23. Tell about their schools. 24. What 
were the sweating calculators? 25. Why were they so called? 
26. What gains came to western Europe through the Arabs ? 



CHAPTER XV 
THE CRUSADES 

Christians of Jerusalem Persecuted. — After Omar's 
death, the Christians of Jerusalem were treated more 
harshly then before. They were forced to conceal their 
crosses and their Bibles. Sometimes they were driven from 
their homes and insulted in their churches. The Saracens 
now demanded a heavier tribute and forbade them to carry 
arms or to be seen on horseback. The Christians were 
forced to wear a girdle of leather, which was the badge of 
their servitude ; and they were not allowed to speak the 
Arabic language. 

Sunshine and Storm. — Sometimes the Christians were 
not persecuted for a long time ; then under a new Calif 
all worship was prohibited, they were driven from the sacred 
city, and their churches were turned into stables. Then 
once more, they were permitted to return and to rebuild 
their churches. But all this persecution could not stop 
the crowd of Christian pilgrims from going to Jerusalem. 
Instead they increased in numbers, until one band of 
pilgrims numbered several thousand. The Saracens usually 
encouraged these pilgrimages because of the money tribute 
they wrung from them. 

Saracens and Turks. — About a hundred years after 
the death of Alfred the Great, the Mohammedan empire 
was attacked in the East by the Turks. They were a 
rough, cruel, and barbarous people. In their ways of 
Hving, their manners, habits, and skill in labor, the Turks 

201 



202 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



were far below the Saracens, whom they now attacked with 
great fury. The Arabs had absorbed the culture and skill, 
and the art of the Greek life about them, and had settled 
down to quiet, civihzed habits. In doing this they lost 
much of their fiery courage and their knowledge of war. 
Thus the empire of the Saracens fell to the rude and warlike 



f0^k 



f^:^:^^ 






li i I') i 




Pilgrims Entering Betulehem on Christmas Day. 

Turks. Though they accepted Islam, the Turks remained 
cruel and savage as before. 

Turks and Christians. — The Turks took Jerusalem 
(1076), robbed the Christians, and reduced them to fright- 
ful misery. As more and more of Palestine fell into their 
hands, the pilgrims to Jerusalem began to meet with very 
harsh treatment. After a visit to the sacred city, the 
pilgrims returned to Europe and told with groans of their 
wrongs, and of the outrages that the Turks had committed 
upon the tomb of Christ. Christian bishops, they said, were 



THE CRUSADES 203 

dragged from their churches and thrown into dungeons to 
die, and the followers of Jesus were tormented in countless 
ways. 

Peter the Hermit in Jerusalem. — During these days, 
according to the story, Peter the Hermit, a restless monk, 
made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He followed the crowds 
of pilgrims to Calvary and to the tomb of Christ. He 
visited every sacred spot with head bowed in sorrow, because 
all that he saw was in the hands of the inhuman Turks. 

Peter and Simeon. — Then Peter appeared before 
Simeon, the chief Christian bishop of Jerusalem, and to- 
gether they wept over the wrongs done the Christians. The 
Hermit asked whether there was to be no end to such suffer- 
ing and insults. The white-haired Simeon replied : " Oh 
most faithful of Christians ! All Asia is in the power of the 
Turks, all the East is sunk into a state of slavery ; no power 
on earth can assist us." Then Peter told Simeon that 
perhaps the Christian princes of the West might some day 
come and free Jerusalem from the infidels. At these words, 
it is said, Peter and Simeon embraced each other, shedding 
tears of joy and hope. Then the enthusiasm of Peter knew 
no bounds. 

Peter Hears a Voice. — One day while praying before 
the Holy Sepulcher, he believed that he heard the voice of 
Christ saying, '' Peter, arise, hasten to proclaim the suffer- 
ing of my people ; it is time that my servants should receive 
help and that the holy places should be delivered." With 
these words ever in his ears, Peter left Palestine, crossed 
the Mediterranean, landed on the coast of Italy, and has- 
tened to cast himself at the feet of the pope. Pope Urban II 
received Peter kindly, hstened to his story, and bade him 
do as the voice had directed — proclaim that Jerusalem 
must soon be delivered. 



204 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



Peter Preaching the Crusade. — Peter then crossed the 
Alps, visited all parts of France, and nearly all of Europe, 
arousing the people everywhere with his zeal. He traveled 
about, mounted on a mule, a crucifix in his hand, his feet 
bare, his head uncovered, his long frock girded by a cord. 
Wherever he appeared he was looked upon as a saint. 
From city to city, from country to country he went, preach- 
ing a crusade from the pulpits of churches, in the high- 
roads, and other public places. In vivid words Peter told 




Peter the Hermit Preaching to the Crusaders. 

how the blood of Christians was shed in torrents in the 
streets of Jerusalem. When he had stirred up the ignorant 
multitude with his fiery words, he showed the crucifix 
that he carried with him. All the while he wept, striking 
his breast and wounding his flesh. 

The People Aroused. — The people followed the steps 
of Peter in crowds. Those who could but touch his gar- 
ments deemed themselves happy, and a hair pulled from his 
mule was preserved as a holy rehc. They raised their 
voices to heaven in prayer. Some offered all their riches, 



THE CRUSADES 205 

others their prayers ; and all promised to lay down their 
lives for the rescue of the Holy City from the wicked 
Turks. 

Alexis Asking Help. — About this time the Turks were 
marching to take Constantinople, the capital of the Greek 
empire ; and the Emperor Alexis sent urgent letters to the 
pope and to western princes, asking them to come to help 
him drive back these savages. He wrote of the treasures 
and beauty of his great city, of its many sacred relics, and 
begged the barons and knights to defend them. He could, 
he said, bear the loss of his crown, but not the shame of 
seeing his empire plundered by the inhuman Turks. 

The Council of War. — Pope Urban II now called a 
council to meet at Clermont in France to decide what to 
do. Immense crowds were present. The pope ascended a 
kind of throne, which had been built for him in the great 
market place ; and by his side was Peter the Hermit, 
dressed in his usual rude manner. 

The Hermit's Stirring Speech. — Peter spoke first : " I 
have seen," he said, " Christians loaded with irons, dragged 
into slavery, or harnessed to the yoke like the vilest animals. 
The Turks tore from them their very bread as tribute. 
The Christians could not even salute the temple of their 
God without paying the accursed Turks a tax. Ministers 
of God were dragged from their churches, beaten with rods, 
and condemned to death." As Peter told of these wrongs 
of the Christians at Jerusalem, his face was cast down and 
his voice was choked with sobs ; while the people wept. 
Then Pope Urban spoke. He begged the Christian knights 
to cease their petty wars upon one another. " If you must 
fight," said he, " take arms against those inhuman Turks 
who are desecrating the tomb of the Savior." When he told 
of the miseries of Jerusalem, the whole assembly was again 



2o6 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



in tears ; the warriors who Hstened to him clutched their 
swords and swore in their hearts to avenge the cause of 
Christ. " Christian Warriors," he said, " hsten to the 
groans of Jerusalem ; Jesus Christ calls you to his defense." 
And he quoted from the Bible the words of Jesus. The 
whole assembly arose in a mass as one man, and cried, 
" It is the will of God ! It is the will of God ! " " Yes, 
without doubt, it is the will of God," continued the elo- 
quent pope. " Let those 
words be your war cry." 

The War of the Cross. 
— The barons and knights 
now forgot their private 
quarrels and took a solemn 
oath to rescue the tomb 
of Christ. So war was de- 
clared against the infidel 
Turks. As the bishops re- 
turned to their churches 
they continued to bless the 
crowd of Christians along 
the way, who wished to be 
led to the Holy Land. 
They took the name of 
" Bearers of the Cross," 
and the holy war was called 
a Crusade. The cross, 
which was their emblem, 
was of red cloth or silk. It was first blessed by the 
pope or some bishop and then sewed upon the right 
shoulder or fastened upon the front of the helmet. 
The Crusaders begged the pope to lead them in person, 
but he felt that his presence was needed at home, so 




A Knight of the Cross. 



THE CRUSADES 207 

he appointed the Bishop of Puy as his legate with the 
army of Crusaders. 

Preparing for the Journey. — The fame of the holy war 
soon spread abroad, and every one was eager to march to 
Jerusalem. All Europe seemed to be taking arms against 
Asia. The Council of Clermont was held in November 
(1905), while the departure of the Crusaders was fixed for 
the following spring. During the winter nothing was 
thought of but preparations for the voyage to the Holy 
Land. Men were eager to sell everything that they could 
not carry with them. 

A Queer Army. — As soon as spring came the people 
hastened to the places where they were to assemble. The 
greater number went on foot, some on horseback, and many 
in ox wagons. They were armed with lances, swords, 
javelins, iron clubs, or other rude weapons. The crowds 
were a curious mixture of all sorts of people — knights and 
monks, rich and poor, old men and boys, and even women 
and children. 

Europe Taking Arms. — Everywhere was heard the clang 
of arms and armor or the braying of trumpets. The zealous 
knights were even now chanting their songs of victory. 
On all sides resounded the war cry of the Crusaders : 
" It is the will of God ! It is the will of God ! " Entire 
famihes and whole villages set out for Palestine ; even the 
sick and weak often dragged themselves along. Those 
who could not go wept as the Crusaders set out. 

Expecting Food from Heaven. — The thousands of 
poor, ignorant people who made up the mob never stopped 
to ask themselves where they were to get their food. 
They thought that surely God would not leave pilgrims 
clothed with the holy cross to perish from hunger. Even 
the great lords knew little of the world or what a long and 



2o8 DAWN OF AMERICAN "HISTORY IN EUROPE 

difficult march they were undertaking. Some took their 
hunting and fishing outfits and marched away with their 
falcons on their wrists, preceded by their hounds. 

The Army is Divided. — Such countless numbers had 
taken up the cross that there were enough to form several 
large armies ; and as they would have to live upon the 
countries through which they passed, it was thought best 
for the chief princes to lead their followers along different 
routes, and for all to meet later at Constantinople. 

Peter in Command. — The multitude who followed Peter 
chose him for their general. He took command, mounted 
upon his mule, and soon found a mob of one hundred 
thousand people at his back. Among them were women, 
children, and many sick, who thought that God himself 
would protect them, that the rivers would part for them to 
pass over, and that manna would fall from heaven to feed 
them. The multitude was divided into two armies. 
Walter the Penniless led the way with only eight horsemen, 
and a part of Peter's army following on foot. Peter was to 
set out some time later with the remaining host. As each 
new city came into view, the children cried out : " Is that 
Jerusalem? " 

The Crusaders in Bulgaria. — The Crusaders were well 
fed by the people as long as they were on French and Ger- 
man soil; but on the banks of the Danube Walter found 
a cold reception among the Bulgarians. When the gov- 
ernor of the Bulgarians was unable to supply the army of the 
cross with food, the Crusaders spread over the country, 
carried off the flocks, burnt the houses, and massacred some 
of the people, who objected to being plundered. The Bul- 
garians ran to arms and fell upon the soldiers of Walter 
loaded with booty. A hundred and forty Crusaders per- 
ished in the flames of a church in which they had taken 



THE CRUSADES 209 

refuge, while the rest sought safety in flight. The wreck 
of Walter's army, suffering from famine, continued its march 
through the forests. After two months of fatigue, they 
arrived under the walls of Constantinople where the emperor 
Alexis permitted them to wait for the army of Peter the 
Hermit, 

Peter Bringing up the Rear. — Peter's army was then 
passing through Germany and about to receive worse 
treatment than that of Walter. Upon arriving at the gates 
of Semlin, in Hungary, Peter's host beheld the slain bodies 
of several Crusaders hanging on posts. This aroused 
Peter's wrath, and he gave the signal for revenge. More 
than four thousand of the inhabitants of Semlin fell under 
the sword of the Crusaders. 

Peter's Army Beyond Control. — The king of Hungary 
now gathered an army, and his people fled from their un- 
fortified cities into the forests and mountains. Peter's 
army, as it proceeded, found the cities and villages deserted, 
and there was no food for the hungry host. The leader 
lost control of his mob, and when they burnt some mills, 
an army of the enemy fell upon his rear guard, massacred 
hundreds of his followers, captured two thousand wagons 
and a great number of prisoners. 

The Host of Peter Routed. — A battle followed, and the 
pilgrim mob, fighting without orders and without leaders, 
was routed and cut to pieces. The women, the children, 
the horses, even the chest that contained the numerous 
offerings of the faithful, all fell into the hands of the furious 
enemy. The Hermit Peter escaped with the wreck of his 
army. Only thirty thousand were left ; and this ragged 
and starving mob was no longer feared. Being supplied 
with food through pity, they at last arrived at Constanti- 
nople. 



2IO DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Alexias Lending a Hand. — The armies of Peter and Walter 
now numbered one hundred thousand. They obeyed no 
one, but pillaged the country and even the churches about 
the city. Alexis, being anxious to get rid of them, fur- 
nished ships to carry them to the other side of the Bosporus. 
No sooner had they set foot upon Asia than they committed 
all sorts of violence and crime. They robbed and plun- 
dered everywhere, Christians and Turks alike ; and then 
fell into quarrels among themselves over the booty. 

Christian Army Slain. — The French boastfully claimed 
credit for every good fortune. So the Germans and Itahans 
chose their own general, who led them at once to meet the 
Turks. This was just the chance the Turks desired. They 
met this part of the army of the cross and put the whole 
multitude to the sword. When the dreadful news reached 
the proud French, they spurned all advice and set out in 
haste to avenge the slaughter of their fellow-pilgrims. The 
Turks concealed a part of their army in the forest and 
awaited the Christian host. The soldiers of the cross were 
soon surrounded and cut down amid horrible carnage. 
Walter, whose commands were no longer heeded, fell, 
pierced by seven arrows. The whole army perished in 
this single battle ; and of the multitude who had set out 
for Jerusalem there remained only a confused heap of bones 
spread over the plains of Nicea. 

Why They Failed. — Peter had returned to Constanti- 
nople before the battle. He said that the Crusaders had 
become a host of brigands and that God was unwilling to 
have them look upon the tomb of His Son. Thus the count- 
less multitude who set out from Europe with confidence 
perished miserably and in vain, without setting eyes upon 
the Holy City. Can you think of some reasons why they 
failed ? 



THE CRUSADES 21 1 

Godfrey and His Knights. — However, their terrible 
fate could not check the crusading spirit, for other multi- 
tudes were now coming together in Italy, France, and 
Germany. The throngs who followed Peter had been 
little more than mobs of wretched beggars and robbers, 
but the new army now ready to start was chiefly made up 
of well-armed knights and nobles led by Godfrey, a famous 
knight and duke. Godfrey was brave, virtuous, and of 
powerful build ; and from his earliest youth, he had been 
trained to fight. Many a knight had fallen before his 
battle-ax. His army was composed of the greatest warriors 
of Europe, clad in the finest steel. 

Money for the Holy War. — Everything was sold to pro- 
vide arms. Knights and barons sold charters of liberty 
to their towns, they sold all the crops of their estates, they 
brought forth their secret stores of gold ; they even sold 
their castles and lands to procure all things needed for the 
holy war. 

Signs in the Heavens. — During these days when the 
people were very ignorant and superstitious, the moon 
went into eclipse, and the frightened people said that it 
was the color of blood. Some weeks after this the whole 
horizon seemed to be on fire, and the terrified people be- 
lieved that the enemy was advancing from the north, fire 
and sword in hand. These portents, with other signs in 
the heavens, the people said, foretold the terrible war. 

Nobles in Arms. — Those who had not yet taken oath 
to fight against the infidels hastened now to take the cross. 
Robert of Normandy, the eldest son of WilHam the Con- 
queror, led his vassals to the holy war ; Robert, Count of 
Flanders, placed himself at the head of his knights ; Stephen, 
Count of Blois, had taken up the cross ; and knights and 
nobles enlisted by the hundreds in all the Christian countries. 



212 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

An Army, Not a Mob. — In different armies they set out 
and were soon encamped near Constantinople. Every- 
where they saw the whitening bones of the pilgrims who 
had been with Walter and Peter. The leaders learned 
lessons from these early calamities, and laid down strict 
rules of discipline for their troops. They advanced in the 
best of order through Asia Minor. 

Headed for Palestine. — After defeating the Turks at 
Nicea, the host advanced toward Palestine, passing some- 
times through deserts, where they met with untold suffer- 
ing and where hundreds died of thirst. At one time when 
the whole army was about to perish in the parched desert, 
the dogs were seen to depart from the camp and to come 
back later covered with wet sand. The whole army rushed 
headlong following the tracks of the dogs, and came to a 
river. Suffering from heat and thirst, they plunged in and 
drank so eagerly that three hundred of them died almost 
immediately, while many others became ill and could not 
continue the march. 

Crusaders at Antioch. — At last, after losing many 
soldiers in battles with the Turks, the Crusaders reached 
the ancient city of Antioch, where lay the ashes of hundreds 
of Christian saints and martyrs. Before its walls the 
Crusaders suffered greatly from hunger and disease, for 
the fleets had ceased to follow them with food. After a 
siege of seven months, Antioch fell to the Christians, who 
rushed in with the cry : " It is the will of God ! It is 
the will of God ! " They found great riches, but Kttle 
food, and they were soon shut up in the city and besieged 
by a great army of Saracens. 

The Christian Army Starving. — Articles of food cost 
their weight in gold, while a pound of silver was given for 
the head of a horse or of an ox. The poor who followed 



X THE CRUSADES 213 

the army were compelled to subsist on roots and leaves ; 
some even devoured the leather of their bucklers and 
shoes. Famine carried off every day a great number of 
the Christians. The living became so weak that they 
were scarcely able to lift their armor or to bury the dead. 

Their Only Hope. — In this starving condition they 
marched out against the enemy, singing hymns. They 
looked like an army of beggars coming to ask alms, but they 
bore down upon the Saracens in such a desperate charge 
that the Saracen army fled. Their camp was taken, with 
immense booty in treasure, provisions, camels, and horses. 
Every Crusader suddenly became rich. It is said the 
Infidels left one hundred thousand dead on the field of 
battle, while the Crusaders lost but four thousand. Fif- 
teen thousand camels and a great number of horses fell 
into the hands of the Christian army. 

Through Syria. — Six months passed before the Crusaders 
set out from Antioch for Jerusalem. On the way they re- 
ceived with great joy a reenforcement of new Crusaders 
from Holland and England. In passing through the prov- 
inces of Syria, the Crusaders came upon great groves of 
olive trees, oranges, and a new plant, which attracted at- 
tention because it was sweeter than honey. The inhabit- 
ants called it zucra ; it was what is now called sugar 
cane. This plant afforded much assistance to the Crusaders 
during famine. Sugar cane had been unknown in the West, 
but it soon became of great importance in commerce. 

Following the Coast. — The crusading army was now re- 
duced by losses and desertion to fifty thousand. Perhaps 
this made them the stronger, for they were not burdened 
by a multitude who were of no help in battle. Following the 
coast in order to be provisioned by Genoese and Flemish 
fleets, they passed by Sidon and Tyre and Acre and Joppa. 



214 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

■ Nearing Jerusalem. — And now with great joy the 
Crusaders approached Jerusalem. When they ascended 
the heights of Emmaus and beheld the Holy City itself 
before their eyes, they shouted :" Jerusalem! Jerusalem! 
It is the will of God! It is the will of God! " Their shout 
resounded over Mt. Zion and the Mount of OUves. Some 
cast themselves upon their knees on beholding the sacred 
places, others kissed the earth where the Savior had trod. 
The horsemen dismounted and marched barefooted. By 
turns they passed from joy to sadness. They wept over 
their sins, and rejoiced that the end of their long, long 
journey was in sight. They all renewed the oath they had 
so often made to deliver the Holy City from the yoke of 
the Saracens. There was not a valley or a rock but had a 
name sacred to the Christians, and they could not with- 
draw their eyes from the Holy City, nor cease to lament 
over its misfortunes. It looked as though it were buried 
in its own ruins. 

Turks Making Ready. — The Turks had ravaged the 
surrounding plains, burnt the villages, filled up or poisoned 
the cisterns, and made the country a desert. So the Chris- 
tians soon began to suffer from famine and disease. The 
CaHf had brought to the city provisions for a long siege, 
had called upon all the Turks to come to the defense of 
Jerusalem, and had employed a great number of workmen, 
day and night, to construct machines of war, and to repair 
the towers. The garrison of the city amounted to forty 
thousand men besides twenty thousand of the inhabit- 
ants who had taken up arms. 

An Immediate Attack. — Some of the Christian leaders 
urged an immediate attack, although they had neither 
ladders nor machines of war. They thought that surely 
God himself would come to their aid. The Christian 



THE CRUSADES 



215 




Palestine, showing the Routes of the Crusades. 



2i6 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

army, therefore, approached the walls with great zeal, 
holding their bucklers over their heads and trying with 
pikes and hammers to destroy the walls. Some stood 
farther away and used their slings and crossbows to drive 
the enemy away from the walls. The Turks threw down 
from the parapet oil, boiling pitch, large stones, and enor- 
mous beams ; but they could not check the enthusiasm of 
the Christians. 

The Inner Wall Solid. — The Crusaders tore down the 
outer wall, but found an inner one which was solid. They 
must either scale it with ladders or give it up. Having one 
ladder that was long enough to reach the top, the bravest 
mounted upon it and fought the Turks hand to hand. But 
so few could gain the top with but one ladder that they 
could not hold their own against the swarm of Saracens. 
Heaven did not come to their aid, and their bravery was 
unvailing. So the Christians had to retreat. 

Building Machines of War. — They now set to work at 
once to build machines of war. But it was difficult to 
find the necessary wood in a country of barren sands and 
rocks. They tore down houses and even churches near the 
city to obtain timber for the hurhng machines and batter- 
ing rams. 

Dying of Thirst. — The most intense heat of summer now 
came upon them. A scorching sun and hot southern winds 
loaded with the sands of the desert swept the country. 
Plants and animals perished, streams and springs dried up. 
The Christian army soon became a prey to all the horrors 
of thirst. Every morning, it is said, the sufferers glued 
their parched lips to the marbles covered with dew. They 
even plowed up the ground with their swords to bury their 
heads in the moist earth. 

Quarrels Break Out. — Those who were fortunate 



THE CRUSADES 



217 



enough to discover a spring concealed it from others, 
and quarrels broke out. Of ttimes the Crusaders drew their 
swords upon one another for the sake of a Httle muddy water. 
The animals were released and wandered over the desert 
to die of thirst. The Saracens might have attacked them 
then and won an easy victory, but they feared the famous 
knights. 

Heaven Sends Aid. — Just at this time the Christians 
heard that a Genoese fleet with provisions was sailing for 
the port of Joppa, and they sent a band to meet it. Soon 
after the fleet arrived, it was surprised and captured by a 
fleet of the Turks, but not until some provisions and mate- 
rials of war had been landed. Engineers and carpenters 
had also landed from the fleet. These hastened toward 
the sacred city and soon appeared before the walls of Jeru- 
salem. Every one renewed his zeal. Those who could help 
worked night and day upon the machines of war. Three 
of these machines were huge towers built on rollers. Each 
tower had three stages, or stories, the lowest for the men 
who Were to move it up to the walls, and the second and 
third stories, for the warriors who were to clear the parapets 
of defenders and to mount upon them. These towers were 
higher than the walls. At the top was fixed a kind of 
drawbridge, which could be let down upon the walls for the 
knights to pass over. 

Ready for Another Attack. — When the machines were 
ready, the Christian army began to work up their courage. 
After a three days' fast, the whole army marched bare- 
headed and barefooted around the city, preceded by priests 
clothed in white, carrying images of the saints and singing 
holy songs. They stopped on the very spot, upon the 
Mount of Olives, where Christ ascended into heaven. They 
looked upon the rocks of Calvary and fell upon their knees 



2i8 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

to pray. They passed by the pool of Siloam, where Christ 
restored sight to the man born bhnd ; they marched along 
the foot of Mount Zion, and towards evening they returned 
to their camp, where many spent the night in prayer. 

An All-day Battle. — At daybreak on the morning of July 
14, 1099, the clarions sounded the call to battle in the 
Christian camp, and the Crusaders flew to arms. All the 
machines were moved to the walls, and the Christians at- 
tacked the enemy with great fury. While the bowmen 
discharged a storm of arrows, the men raised ladders to 
scale the walls, the hurhng machines threw huge stones, 
and the battering rams hammered at the towers. The 
Turks, in turn, fought with a great courage. They shot 
arrows, hurled javehns, and threw down boiling oil and 
Greek fire, which vinegar alone would quench. And thus 
the fiercest fighting went on all day and until darkness 
came. The Christians had the best of the fight and re- 
newed it the next morning. 

Jerusalem Taken. — The Turks upon the walls now 
taunted the Christians for worshiping a God who was not 
able to defend them. Again they hurled torches, firepots, 
and innumerable stones, for they had fourteen machines 
within the walls. The Christians continued to fight 
bravely, facing the greatest dangers. At last the tower of 
Godfrey, although on fire, was pushed up close enough for 
the drawbridge to reach the wall ; and Godfrey and his 
powerful knights leaped upon it, fighting like giants. Others 
quickly followed. The flames and smoke from some burn- 
ing straw were carried by the wind into the faces of the 
Turks, and they retreated from the walls before the swords 
of the knights. The walls were now easily scaled with 
ladders, the gates were opened, and the Christian host en- 
tered shouting, " It is the will of God." The Saracens 



THE CRUSADES 



219 




220 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

were massacred in the streets and in the houses by the tens 
of thousands ; and Jerusalem was filled with blood and 
mourning. 

A Thanksgiving. — Godfrey repaired to the church of 
the Holy Sepulcher, barefooted and unarmed, to render 





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thanks. When the others heard of this, they ceased slaying, 
cast away their bloody garments, and marched bareheaded 
and barefooted to the church of the Resurrection. While 
they were thus assembled on Calvary, night came on. 

Wearing a Crown. — The next day the slaughter of the 
Turks began anew. For weeks the Saracens were hunted 
down and put to the sword. Then came a desire for peace, 
order, and government. Godfrey was chosen king, but 
he would not wear a crown of gold in the city where the 
Savior wore a crown of thorns. Instead of king he was 



THE CRUSADES 



221 



called " Defender and Baron of the Holy Sepulcher." Of 
the vast throngs of Crusaders who set out from their homes 
in the West for the Holy Land, only a few were now alive. 
Many of these soon embarked for home. Their presence in 
Europe stirred up great enthusiasm, and thousands were 
eager for a new crusade. 

The 8fecond Crusade. — The Crusader knights who re- 
mained in Jerusalem drove back the Turks from Palestine 
and built up a Christian empire in Asia, but it was not long 
before the Turk was again gaining ground. A second 
Crusade therefore took place about fifty years after the 
first. It was led by Emperor Conrad III and Louis VII of 
France, but it failed miserably because of ignorance and bad 
generalship. 

Another Failure. — Forty years later, when the Turks 
had recaptured Jerusalem, a third crusade was attempted. 




The Sacking of Jerusalem. 



2 22 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

This time three rulers of Europe took part: Frederick 
Barbarossa of Germany, Philip II of France, and Richard 
of England. This was the best known of all the Crusades, 
but it also failed. The death of Frederick and the jealousy 
between Philip and Richard ruined the expedition. 

More Ignorance and Folly. — Still other expeditions 
against the Turks set forth, only to fail. There ^as even 
a children's Crusade in which tens of thousands of children 
lost their Hves. All this shows how ignorant and foolish 
the people of those times were. The Turks held their own 
against all comers, and Jerusalem remained at last in their 
hands. It now became more popular for those who wished 
to make war on the infidels to help the Spanish Goths in 
their efforts to drive out the Moors from Spain. 

QUESTIONS 

I. How were Christians living in the Holy Land treated ? 2. How 
did the Saracens treat the pilgrims to Jerusalem ? 3. Why ? 
4. Who were the Turks? 5. How did they change after taking the 
Saracen empire ? 6. Did they behave differently toward the Chris- 
tian pilgrims? 7. Tell about Peter the Hermit in the Holy Land. 
8. Describe Peter's later preaching. 9. How was he received by the 
people? 10. Who was Alexis and why did he hate the Turks? 
II. Tell about the Council of Clermont. 12. Describe Peter's army 
and tell what became of it. 13. Give some reasons why he failed to 
reach Jerusalem. 14. How did Godfrey's army differ from Peter's ? 

15. Describe the march through Asia Minor toward Jerusalem. 

16. Locate the cities through which the army of the cross marched. 

17. What mistakes did the Christians make ? 18. Tell about the cap- 
ture of Jerusalem. 19. Discuss the later crusades and tell why they 
failed. 



CHAPTER XVI 
RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 

Saracens Not "Horned Devils." — The Crusades were 
scattered through a field of two hundred years, during 
which time throngs of men of all classes matched swords 
with the Turks. And although they all failed to rescue the 
Holy Land, still Europe reaped great gain from them. The 
army of the cross set out, as they thought, to " kill horned 
devils," but those few who escaped death came back to tell 
of the wonderful cities, and the great countries that they 
had visited, and of the educated people whom they had met. 

The Returning Knights. — Not only the multitudes who 
went, but those who stayed behind, were wonderfully 
stimulated and educated by the Crusades ; for the return- 
ing knights of the cross were welcomed to every fireside, and 
the people were never tired of listening to their exciting 
experiences. 

Europe Ready to Learn. — Europeans found that the 
world was larger than they had dreamed, and that there 
were many great nations, who had newer ideas, higher ways 
of living, and better ways of doing things than they had. 
The people of Europe saw that they must learn the great 
lessons of civilized living from these hated Saracens, if they 
wished to be the leading people of the world. Europe was 
now ready to learn, and the Arabs proved fine teachers. 

New Fashions and New Foods. — The Crusaders brought 
home among other ideas new fashions, such as shaving and 
bathing. They also taught to Europe the growing of 

223 



2 24 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



lemons, apricots, watermelons, rice, and sugar cane. These 
things made life in the West much pleasanter. 

Ship Building. — The Crusaders also greatly stimulated 
ship building. Many new vessels had to be built in the 
Mediterranean to carry supplies to the army of the cross. 
The later Crusaders, in order to avoid the long, toilsome, 
and dangerous journey overland, took passage on water. 
Thus many new ships were needed. The ships that pHed 




Ancient Ships. 

the Mediterranean were larger than those upon the Atlantic, 
because the inland sea is not as rough as the ocean, and 
there were great numbers of men seeking passage for the 
Holy Land. The vessels were often a hundred feet long 
and could carry, besides several score of oarsmen, a hundred 
or more passengers with their provisions and baggage. 
The ships were propelled mainly by oars, but sails were 
used when there was a favorable wind. The ship captains, 
in early times, took their lives in their hands when they 
ventured out of sight of land. They had to rely upon the 




RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 225 

sun and stars as guides, and there was always danger of the 
heavens being hidden by clouds. Ships often missed their 
port by as much as five hundred miles. But with the 
Crusades came greater knowledge of the sea and of the use 
of ships. 

The Compass. — Shortly after the first Crusades the 
Europeans learned the use of the mariner's compass from 
the Arabs, who brought it from the East. Who invented 
the compass, we do not know, but it is supposed by some to 
have come from China. Since the compass always points 
to the north, sailors could now tell the 
directions in cloudy weather. The 
first compasses were merely magnetized 
needles fixed upon cork and floating 
upon water so that they could turn 
easily. When the sea was rough, the 

, 1 • V i.1 ji i3 i J Mariner's Compass. 

water on which the needle floated was 
disturbed, and the needle could not do its work. At last 
some one tried balancing the needle upon a point, and this 
proved satisfactory in all weather. The compass could now 
be relied upon, and it became a great aid to commerce. 
" Sailing directions " also came into use. These were little 
books telling the sailor about the coasts, the tides, and the 
shallows or rocks near the surface of the sea. 

Water Transportation Costly. — Voyages came to be 
longer, but the expense of shipping was still great. Spices 
cost three times as much in Belgium as in Venice, and Eng- 
lish wool sold in Italy for twelve times as much as at home. 
Each ship had to carry a band of armed sailors, for sea 
fighting was a regular practice, often among respectable 
people. Sometimes an ordinary merchantman turned 
pirate, if it met a weaker ship. Even a Canterbury abbot 
was proved to have plundered a vessel loaded with wine. It 
Q 



2 26 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

is said that Christopher Columbus was known to have 
taken part in pirate expeditions. The crews and passengers 
of the captured vessel were frequently tossed overboard, 
sometimes with their hands tied behind their backs, or 
they were murdered on the deck with heartless cruelty. 
All this added to the dangers of the sea and to the cost of 
transporting goods by water. 

Spices and Luxuries, from the East. — But in spite of the 
dangers, commerce grew rapidly. Spices, such as cloves, 
cinnamon, and nutmeg, became cheaper. They were in 
great demand for seasoning in every home, because the 
food of even the nobles was, in those days, coarse and un- 
inviting. Spices were also needed in preserving food for 
winter use. Dates and oils were now to be had. Merchants 
brought cotton goods such as calicoes from Calicut, and 
musHn from Mosul ; they brought fine satins and silks from 
Syria, tapestries and carpets from Persia, and precious 
stones and perfumes from Arabia. 

Desire for Travel. — Men began to want to travel and to 
visit strange and far-off people. Such men as Marco Polo 
set out for China, going overland through Asia. In this way 
new trade routes were opened, new countries appeared on 
the map, and new luxuries were sold in the market place. 

The Crossbow and Gunpowder. — Soon the crossbow 
appeared, coming also from the East. It was used in war 
and in the chase, until gunpowder took its place. Nobody 
knows who invented gunpowder or where it came from, but 
many think that it, too, was brought from the East by the 
Arabs. Others beheve that Roger Bacon, an Englishman, 
invented it. Bacon read much from the Greeks, and he 
had a laboratory where he performed experiments. He 
said that anybody who wanted to make a big flash and a 
great noise could do so by mixing saltpeter, charcoal, and 



RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 227 

sulphur, and touching fire to it. " Truly," he said, " I am 
not joking." No one would think of saying now that 
gunpowder is a joke. 

The First Gun. — Some unknown man found out that 
powder would throw objects that were lying upon it when 
it exploded ; and finally some genius thought of using a 
hollow iron tube, closed at one end, so that the powder 
could throw straight. And thus the gun was invented. 
Woe to the knight with all his armor, for the poorest serf 
with a gun could now fight better. 

The Windmill. — Another machine very useful to man 
came into Europe just after the Crusades. Again we cannot 
learn where or by whom it was invented, but it, too, is 
beheved to have come through the Arabs. This was the 
windmill. Anything that will help mankind to get food 
or clothing more easily, or that will save labor, is a great 
blessing ; for when man does not have to spend every hour 
in search of his daily food, he has time to think, time to 
make better tools and to invent new ones. The people had 
long used water power and horse power ; but not wind 
power, save in the case of the sails of ships. 

Use of the Windmill. — The first windmills were built on 
wooden towers, but whenever the wind changed, the whole 
tower had to be turned so the breeze could again catch the 
wheel. After a time some clever man made one so that he 
could turn the wheel to the wind without moving the tower. 
Then people came to build the towers of brick and stone. 
Although rudely made, the windmill was early used for 
grinding corn when the water was too low for wateiv mills to 
run. Besides, windmills might be built anywhere, while 
watermills could be useful only along swift rivers. 

Money a Help. — To carry on the increasing trade of 
Europe after the Crusades, it was necessary to have to make 



2 28 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



exchanges easily ; and when money came in abundance, it 
accomplished other things besides helping the merchants 
and traders. Tenants no longer had to pay their rents in 
produce or in day's labor for their lord ; they paid money 
rents instead, for they could now sell their surplus products 




A Dutch Windmill. 

for cash. Money rents freed tenants and serfs from many 
burdens. 

King Grows Stronger. — The kings, too, were glad that 
money had come back into use ; because now they could col- 
lect a tax for the state and use it to keep up a standing 
army. With a good army they were able to make the nobles 
and barons obey them. So instead of a very great number 



RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 229 

of petty feudal states, there came to be a few large and 
strong kingdoms with powerful rulers. 

The Third Estate. — Up to the time of the Crusades, 
there had been but two ruling classes who had any power 
or share in the government. They were the nobles and the 
churchmen, or clergy. Now we notice a third class rising 
into view. It was called the Third Estate, or the towns. 

Towns Buy Freedom. — Many lords and abbots, and 
even kings, were in hard straits for money to defray the 
expenses of their expeditions to Jerusalem. So they sold 
charters of liberties freely to the growing towns upon their 
estates. These charters stated what privileges and freedom 
the townspeople were to have and enjoy, and this written 
charter bound the king or noble or abbot as firmly as it did 
the town, for his name was signed to it. In this way many 
towns obtained freedom from taxes to their feudal lords 
and freedom from tolls and from all sorts of burdens. 

Other Towns Free. — Hundreds and thousands of nobles 
who embarked for the Holy Land never came back, and 
many towns got their liberty in this way. Still other cities 
in France and Germany made war on their lords. Some 
cities rose up in arms five, six, or a dozen times, before they 
won their freedom. 

Towns Ask a Share in the Government. — The towns- 
people were obtaining riches from the growing commerce 
and manufactures, and with riches came leisure. They 
had time to think, to read, to travel, and to become as well 
educated as the nobles and clergy. Then the towns began 
to demand a share in the government with the other two 
classes. 

The King and the Towns Join Hands. — The king was 
friendly to the towns. They could furnish the money he 
needed to keep a standing army. The king alone could in- 



230 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

sure the peace and freedom for trade that the towns wanted 
because of his standing army and his growing power over 
the robber barons. So the towns and the king joined hands 
against the feudal lords. The nobles were no longer to be 
rulers over their estates, but were forced to obey the king's 
laws. This, along with money rents, caused feudalism 
gradually, but surely, to disappear. 

Serfs in Cities. — During all these years the common 
working people had no rights whatever ; these belonged 
only to the nobles and the clergy, and now to the towns. 
But the condition of the workers tended gradually towards 
freedom, although very slowly in some countries. Serfs 
in the towns and cities often purchased their liberty with 
money that they earned. Others were not worth the food 
and clothing that they required, and the masters were glad 
to be rid of them. Some ran away to other towns, and 
some were given their freedom. Thus serfdom disappeared 
in the cities. 

Free Farm Laborers. — In the country districts it was a 
much longer time before all the serfs were free. Some few 
landowners gave liberty to their serfs because they knew 
that free laborers do more and better work than serfs. The 
king was always ready to help the serf to freedom, because 
he wanted to weaken the unruly nobles by taking their 
laborers from them. But possibly the strongest friend of 
the unfreed workers was the church. On church lands the 
tenants or serfs received kind treatment, and ofttimes they 
were set free. The clergy also urged the nobles to do like- 
wise. Lords who were old and near their deathbed fre- 
quently granted Uberty to their serfs as a peace offering to 
heaven. 

The King and the Serf. — Kings, in order to get money, 
often sold freedom to all toilers on lands belonging to the 



RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 



231 



crown ; but sometimes the price was so high that the tenants 
refused to take advantage of the offer. However, serfs and 
vassals no longer had to grind their corn in the lord's mill, 
to crush their grapes in his wine press, or to bake their 
bread in his oven, every time paying toll to him. They 
became more and more subject to the king's laws and less 
to those of their lord. In this way the king and the central 
government were growing stronger at the expense of the 
nobles, and finally the serf became a free laborer, working 
for wages. 

QUESTIONS 

I. How were the Christians surprised in what they found in the 
Holy Land ? 2. Tell about the returning knights. 3. Who was 
more highly civilized at this time, Europe or the Arabs ? 4. Why ? 

5. What effect did the Crusades have upon ships and navigation? 

6. Describe the early compass and tell what good it did. 7. How 
were goods transported in those days ? 8. Were foreign wares costly ? 
g. Why ? 10. Name the chief spices obtained from the East and tell 
how each was used. 11. Tell about the Poles. 12. What made 
them risk the dangers of distant countries ? 13. Do people visit wild 
lands to-day for the same or for different purposes ? 14. Tell about 
the crossbow and gunpowder. 15. What change did gunpowder 
make in the world? 16. Tell how you think the first gun was in- 
vented. 17. Discuss the windmill. 18. How do you think it was 
first invented or thought out ? 19. How did the Crusades affect the 
kings in Europe? 20. The trading classes or towns? 21. Why 
was the king friendly to the towns? 22. What change now came 
about for the serfs? 23. Who' was now growing stronger and who 
weaker ? 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE GROWTH OF FRANCE 

The King a Figurehead. — We have seen that in the 
feudal times France was broken up into a great many Httle 
districts. In each of them a count or duke or other noble 
ruled like a king, paying no attention whatever to the real 
sovereign at Paris, because he had lost nearly all of his 
power. Some of these dukes and counts were stronger than 
the monarch himself, and they did not hesitate to make war 
upon him. Things had come to such a pass that it was 
scarcely safe for the king to travel about freely over France. 

The Country Divided. — There was not only a large 
number of feudal states, which were practically independ- 
ent, but the people of these fiefs or duchies usually spoke 
different French dialects. They had different laws, dif- 
ferent kinds of money, and, of course, separate rulers. 
What was needed was a strong king to mold these many 
unHke people into a united nation with one language, one 
system of laws, and one ruler. The church was glad to 
offer aid to any king strong enough to protect both the 
churches and the people against the greedy and wicked 
nobles. 

The Capetian Kings. — During the stormy feudal age 
Charlemagne's crown had fallen to a new family, the Cape- 
tians, who were to rule France for eight hundred years. 
The early Capetians came into power in Paris, because they 
fought off the Northmen bravely from the Seine and Loire 
valleys. 

232 



THE GROWTH OF FRANCE 



233 



Dividing up the King's Duchy. — But some of these 
Capetian kings did not have a very firm hold upon their 
own duchy. Certain haughty barons, even in the neigh- 
borhood of Paris, had built strong castles, and defied the 
king in his own province. They boldly plundered the 
merchants and peasants on church lands, and often openly 
treated the king with contempt. They meant to become 
independent of the king, just as the greater barons had 
done all over France. 

Louis the Fighter. — However, there came a king at last, 
who was stronger than the rulers before him. This king, 
Louis the Fighter, resolved to bring his own duchy, at 
least, into better obedience. With this solid support he 
hoped to build up a great, united France out of the many 
fragments. When he was but twenty years old, he made 
war upon the unruly barons of his duchy and kept it up 
until his death. He captured their castles, pulled them 
down, and threw the barons into prison. After this his 
word was law throughout his own duchy, and the dues and 
rents from his vassals all came into his own hands instead 
of going to the feudal lords. 

Fighting the Greater Dukes. — With this extra rent and 
united support, Louis now felt strong enough to make war 
upon some of the greater dukes and counts of France. 
These noblemen called him king and owed him allegiance, 
but they utterly refused to obey him. One of them was 
the Duke of Normandy, who had conquered England, and 
had become the English king ; but he still held a large part 
of the land of western France as a vassal of the French 
king. The English kingdom, with the duchy of Normandy, 
fell to the succeeding sovereigns of England. Louis could 
not make much headway against the English king, who was 
aided by the German emperor and other allies. 



234 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

King Henry of England. — Henry II, who now became 
king of England, actually gained territory in France, 
for he had married Eleanor of Aquitaine, and thus had 
added nearly one fourth of France to what he had already 
held as Duke of Normandy. In fact Henry of England 
now ruled over three times as much territory in France as 
did the French king. 

Another Strong French King. — Louis the Fighter had 
left his own duchy united and strong as a starting point 
for his successors. The French crown fell, a few years later, 
to Louis's grandson, Philip Augustus, who made up his 
mind to extend the boundaries of his duchy by seizing other 
fiefs and driving out the feudal lords. Phihp was a great 
king. He knew what to do and how to do it, besides having 
the patience to wait until the time was ripe. He was only 
fifteen years old when he took the crown, but in six years 
he had beaten the feudal barons, and had annexed to his 
royal domains three great counties ; and before long he 
forced Henry II, one of England's strongest kings, to give 
to him another big county in France. 

A Weak English King. — After the short rule of Richard 
the Crusader, the Enghsh crown fell to John, a weak and 
good-for-nothing king ; and Philip's hour had come. He re- 
solved to drive John from his French domains. A quarrel 
was easily hatched ; and Phihp won a glorious victory, taking 
from John several large French provinces, but not all of them. 

France Nearly United. — • Thus Philip had multipKed by 
three the territory of the French crown, and his people were 
wild with joy. They began to feel proud of their name and 
to long for a great united nation. Later kings gained other 
territory from the vassal barons, and after a time, all France, 
save what was still held by the Enghsh crown, was united 
under the French king. 



THE GROWTH OF FRANCE 235 

The French Kings Hold Their Grip. — The kings of 
France not only won new territory, but they planned to 
keep a firm hold upon all the distant provinces, so that 
the feudal nobles might not again seize power. How could 
the king make his power felt so far from his capital ? Philip 
solved the problem in this way. He appointed agents 
to look after his affairs in the distant provinces. He kept 
transferring these men from one region to another at regu- 
lar times, for fear they might become too well acquainted 
with the feudal barons and plot with them against him. 
In this way the agents were held under strict control by 
the king, and were loyal to him. 

The Work of the King's Agent. — In the district to 
which he was sent the agent was to act for the king, to see 
that the king's laws were obeyed, and that the taxes were 
paid into the royal hands. He was a kind of royal judge, 
too. Thus these agents helped the king to make his power 
felt everywhere in the land, and sometimes they even helped 
to add new territory to the king's domains. 

The Noble St. Louis. — The grandson of Philip was 
also a noble and good king, though he was not a great 
fighter. He did not gain territory, but neither did he lose 
any, save what he gave back to Henry of England, because 
he believed that his grandfather had seized it unjustly. 
His victories were victories of peace ; and he was called 
St. Louis because he was so just and fair, not only to his 
friends, but to his enemies. Louis did not hesitate to oppose 
the bishops and the popes when he thought that they were 
wrong. He believed that what was right should always be 
done, no matter who suffered ; so he punished the nobles of 
highest rank or even his nearest friends, if they committed 
a wrong. He even punished his loyal officers if they did 
an injustice in trying to advance the king's interests. 



236 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

St. Louis was ambitious to have peace and justice prevail 
in every province. Philip had gathered in all the fragments 
of France, and St. Louis wished to bind all these parts of 
the kingdom firmly together under himself. 

The King's Fairness Makes Friends. — As the king's 
power grew and his territory expanded, the feudal lords 
began to show greater respect for the king's supreme court 
at Paris, and to obey more willingly the decisions of that 
court. So fair and just was St. Louis that many barons 
were glad to have him settle their disputes, and his court 
at Paris became popular. 

Keeping Peace and Order. — There was another thing 
that Louis the Saint wished very much to do in order to 
make his power everywhere complete. This was to es- 
tablish in all the provinces national courts, or king's courts, 
which should be higher than the feudal courts of the lords. 
In this way the king could enforce peace and order, and 
do away with all petty private wars between the lords and 
vassals ; for we must remember that fighting had been the 
chief business of the nobles for centuries, and they felt 
that days of peace were just so many days lost. We must 
also remember that the merchants and the towns desired 
peace very much, and for it they were willing to pay taxes 
to the king to be used for his standing army. 

The King's Courts Win. — The king's agents in the 
district provinces were called upon more and more to settle 
disputes between the quarrelsome lords and vassals, and 
thus much of their time was taken up as king's judges in 
these lawsuits. Soon there came to be a king's court in 
every province. After a time these subordinate king's 
courts were looked upon as better than the old feudal courts 
because the judges were fair and just, and because the king 
forced the people to obey the court's orders. 



THE GROWTH OF FRANCE 237 

Carrying a Dispute to a Higher Judge. — One more 
important thing happened, which made the king's courts 
very popular. It was this : when two men got into a 
quarrel over property, they took their dispute to the king's 
court in the province for a settlement. If either of the 
men were not satisfied with the court's decision, he might 
carry the lawsuit to the king's supreme court at Paris and 
get another trial with, perhaps, a different decision. This 
is called appealing a case to a higher court. A case could 
not only be appealed from one king's court to a higher 
king's court, but the king could force the unwilling feudal 
barons to permit any one to appeal from the feudal court 
to the king's court. This right of appeal the king labored 
very earnestly to bring about ; and when it came, it did 
away entirely with the independence of feudal lords, and 
created much more respect for the king. 

Studying Roman Law. — Another thing that added 
much to the power of the French king was the study of 
Roman law. The trained lawyers of France were studying 
Roman law very dihgently ; for here, we know, they found 
the best system of law that the world had ever seen. But 
the laws of the Roman empire were all framed upon the 
idea that the Roman emperor was the supreme head of the 
state. He was the king, the lawmaker, and the judge, 
all in one, and the people of the Roman empire had no 
share and no voice in their government. 

Roman Laws Copied in France. — Now French lawyers, 
trained in the laws of Rome, brought these same ideas into 
the courts of the king of France. The king liked the ideas 
and was very glad indeed to appoint the lawyers trained 
in such manner as his judges. So great was the influence 
of these lawyers that after a time the king of France be- 
came an absolute monarch. The French people, like the 



238 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

people of Rome, came to have no rights and no power of 
deciding how they should be ruled. 

The King Holds the Nation's Pocketbook. — The king 
not only made all the laws and appointed all the judges, 
but the time came when he levied all the taxes upon the 
people of France, and collected the money through his 
agents without consulting the people. As usual the king 
hired a standing army with these taxes, which he used to 
make the people obey him. They were thus forced to hold 
their peace, leaving him free to do as he wished. The 
king was now all powerful, with the people practically his 
slaves. However, the people were happier than in the 
feudal age when there was continued fighting. This abso- 
lute rule is very dift'erent from the government that grew 
up in England. There the people insisted on having a 
voice in the making of laws and some way of checking the 
taxes that they were to pay. 

QUESTIONS 

I. Compare the French king's power with that of his nobles. 
2. Was this a good thing? 3. Why, or why not? 4. How did the 
Capetian house come into power in Paris? 5. What good did 
Louis the Fighter do for his kingdom ? 6. How did France get into 
trouble with England? 7. Tell about Philip Augustus and King 
John of England. 8. What good things did Philip do for his kingdom? 
9. How did the king make the distant province obey him? 10. Tell 
about St. Louis. 11. Why was it hard to be a good man in those 
days? 12. Was the king's court a good thing for the people? 
13. Why? 14. What changes came about because of studying Ro- 
man law? 15. Why do people pay taxes to-day? 16. What was 
the money used for in those days? 17. How did the government 
in France dififer from that in England ? 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE COMING OF THE NORTHMEN 

Northmen in France. — At about the time that King Alfred 
was struggUng to save England from the Northmen these 
same sea wolves were also plundering on the opposite side 
of the channel in France. One of these pirate bands was 
led by a chieftain named Rolf, or Rollo. He was a man of 
great stature, powerful and barbarous. It is said that 
there was no horse in Norway tall enough to lift Rolf's 
feet from the ground as he rode. That is why he was 
called Rolf the Walker. 

Normans in Normandy. — The king of France was no 
match for Rolf and his fierce sea rovers. So the French 
king made a treaty with the Northman, giving him lands 
about the mouth of the Seine River. In return for these 
lands Rolf was to protect the Franks from other bands 
of Northmen. Rolf called his new province upon the Seine 
Normandy, and his people Normans. Hither came many 
of his kinsmen from the sea until a large district was occu- 
pied by them. They intermarried with the earlier inhabit- 
ants, accepted the Christian faith, and gradually took up 
the language of the Franks. 

William the Great. — Rolf was followed a hundred years 
later by another strong Duke of Normandy, called by men 
of his own day William the Great. Later the English 
named him William the Conqueror. It was said that 
no knight under heaven was his equal. No man could 
bend his bow, and the blows of his mace were fatal. So 

239 



240 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



powerful and so fierce was he, that none dared resist his 
iron will. 

Putting Normandy in Order. — Wilham was troubled 
for many years by the robber lords of his duchy. His very 

kinsfolk made 
war on him, but 
two great vic- 
tories brought 
them all to his 
feet. Some of 
his enemies died 
in his dungeons, 
while others were 
driven into exile. 
Thus Normandy 
settled down at 
last to peace and 
order. 

Harold and 
William Rivals. 
— Edward the 
Saint, who was 
then king of 
England, had no 
children. He 
was a kinsman 
of William of 
Normandy, and 
on one occasion, he had promised his crown at his death to 
the Norman duke. But there was a great English noble- 
man named Harold, who also had hopes of gaining the 
English throne. It is said that when Harold was once 
cruising in the channel, a storm drove him upon the French 



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THE COMING OF THE NORTHMEN 241 

coast, and he fell into the hands of Duke William, his rival. 
William ordered Harold to swear solemnly to aid him to the 
English throne upon the death of King Edward. Harold 
was unwilling to give up his own chances. " Swear or die," 
said the stern WiUiam ; so Harold took the oath. 

Harold Receives the Crown. — Now when King Edward 
died, he named Harold as his successor, in spite of the prom- 
ises both had made to William. Harold thought it was 
his duty to accept the English crown. William was furi- 
ous at what he called Harold's treachery, and prepared for 
war. Gathering an army of steel-clad knights, he crossed 
the channel and gave battle to the English army under 
Harold at Hastings (1066). 

Battle of Hastings. — In the midst of the fight the Nor- 
mans were being worsted, and the cry arose that their 
Duke had fallen. " I live," shouted William as he tore off 
his helmet, " and by God's help will conquer yet." When 
he found that he could not break the firm English line by 
fierce charging, he pretended to flee, hoping to draw the 
enemy after him and thus to throw their ranks into disorder. 
When they followed, William turned on them ; and Harold 
fell pierced by an arrow, while his army was put to flight. 
Then WilUam the Conqueror " pitched his tent on the very 
spot where his rival had fallen, and sat down to eat and 
drink among the dead." London opened her gates to the 
Conqueror, and William was soon crowned king of England. 

Seizing Great Estates. — William claimed to be the 
rightful successor to the crown. Those who opposed him he 
considered traitors and seized their estates. Nearly all the 
English nobles, at one time or another, rose up against the 
Conqueror, but in vain. They were either killed or driven 
into exile, and their great estates fell into William's hands as 
king. The small landholders, however, were not disturbed. 



242 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

The Feudal System in England. — In order to hold his 
throne William must have an army ready at his call to put 
down the many revolts against him. How could he build 
up and maintain a loyal army? He decided to distribute 
the great estates among his faithful Norman followers, on 
condition that they would muster in arms when summoned 
by him. Even the poorest Norman soldier now received 
a large amount of land and rose to wealth and power as a 
vassal of the king. The large holdings of land were again 
divided by the king's vassals among their tenants on the 
same terms of service to them. In this manner, you see, 
Wilham introduced the feudal system into England. This 
was the only way known to him of keeping control of his 
subjects or obtaining an army when he needed one. 

How William Gets a Firm Grip. — But WilHam remem- 
bered how many years of fighting it took to put down his 
proud feudal lords in Normandy who were strugghng to 
become independent. He feared his new Norman-EngHsh 
nobles might also desire to become separate kings on their 
own estates, and he resolved to prevent this evil. When he 
gave out a great English estate, he did not give it all to one 
noble. He divided each estate, giving to one only a small 
share. Then far away, in some other part of the kingdom, 
he gave this same noble another strip, and elsewhere, per- 
haps, another. So that every noble's land was in small 
sections, widely scattered, a farm here and another farm 
miles away. Now the noble could not become an in- 
dependent king if he wanted to. Thus William, by one 
brilliant stroke, destroyed the worst danger of feudaUsm. 

Swearing Loyalty to the King. — Wilham did another 
thing to hold a check upon his nobles. In France, you re- 
member, the vassals of a lord always took a solemn oath to 
fight for him against all enemies and even against the king. 



THE COMING OF THE NORTHMEN 



243 



William overcame this danger by making every landholder, 
in addition to the oath of fealty to his lord, swear loyalty 
directly to him as king. 

A Norman Sheriff Over Each County. — In order to 
keep his grip upon the more distant counties, the king 
appointed sheriffs to look after his interests just as the 
agents of the French king did, and naturally these offices 
were filled by Normans. In many places William built 
strong castles and manned them with his knights, to keep 
his people in order better. 

Stamping Out Feudal Courts. — Instead of allowing 
independent feudal courts to grow up as had happened 
upon the continent, Wilham kept the Anglo-Saxon courts, 
and above them he placed his own king's court. Cases 
at law might be appealed from these lower courts to the 
king's court, as was done in France. Thus, you see, the 
king was making his own power very strong indeed. 

The Crown Lands. — We must notice three more plans of 
William's to strengthen his power. He did not by any 
means give away all the lands that he had seized, but kept 
very large tracts as crown lands, so that he might have 
money or dues coming in from them all the time to fill his 
treasury and to pay his officers and knights. 

Getting Church Support. — William also wished to win 
the support of the church. So he put aside all the English 
clergy — priests, abbots, bishops, even the archbishop of 
Canterbury — and put Norman clergymen into their 
places. Can you think why? 

Old Taxes. — No king can be strong without money to 
pay his officers and keep up his court. The question of 
taxes has always caused much strife. Long before William 
the Conqueror invaded England, the people had been asked 
by their king and Witan to pay a sum of money to buy off 



244 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

the Danes whose raids could not be checked. This money 
that every landowner had to pay was called Danegeld or 
Dane tax. But the Danes kept coming and the tax was 
called for again and again. So the people were accustomed 
to paying out money to the government as taxes. 

The Domesday Book. — WilHam wished to know how 
much land every man held, so that he might spread such 
a tax fairly. He therefore caused a record of the property 
of each man in the entire kingdom to be written down in a 
great book called the Domesday Book. He was now able 
to spread his taxes fairly, and he knew how much money 
could be raised in this way without ruining his subjects. 

Strong Kings and a United Country. — While other 
countries of Europe were still broken up into small separate 
provinces, each with its earl or count or duke, and each 
almost independent of its king, England, we see, was 
bound together firmly under a strong king. So for several 
centuries there was more peace and happiness in England 
than anywhere in Europe, for William was followed by a 
line of able kings who were successful, although they were 
sometimes cruel. 

Other Gains. — The Norman conquest brought England 
into closer relation with the south of Europe and its grow- 
ing trade and town life. The Normans and English were 
Teutons and closely related. They gradually mingled 
and became one people. The Norman nobility, however, 
continued for a hundred years or more to speak the Norman- 
French language. But as the hatred between the English 
and the Normans died out and as the nobles and common 
people mingled more and more, the Anglo-Saxon speech 
won its way among the nobles. In the meantime, however, 
it had received very many words from the Norman-French. 
Thus our mother tongue is much richer and broader and 



THE COMING OF THE NORTHMEN 245 

better because of the new element introduced by the Nor- 
mans. With the Normans came also more learning and 
refinement, more knowledge of art and architecture, of 
crafts and manual skill. 

QUESTIONS 

I. Who were the Northmen? 2. How did they come to settle 
in France? 3. Tell about William the Great and his good work. 

4. How did Harold and William come to claim the crown of England ? 

5. Tell about the battle of Hastings. 6. What did William do with 
the estates of the nobles in England ? 7. Why did he introduce the 
feudal system into England ? 8. How did he get a firm grip upon 
England ? 9. What was the Domesday Book and what was its use ? 

10. Was the Norman conquest of England a good thing for the island ? 

11. Why, or why not? 



CHAPTER XIX 

WINNING ENGLISH LIBERTY 

Absolute Rulers. — The English kings ruled the country 
much as they pleased for many years, for neither the nobles 
nor the people had a voice in the affairs of the nation. 
Though the land was both peaceful and prosperous, the 
nobles objected to the absolute rule of the king over them, 
and the people resented the heavy taxes about which they 
were allowed to say nothing ; but things went on in this 
way for a hundred and fifty years. 

Hands of the Nobles Tied. — Each one of the nobles 
would have liked to become independent of the king, as 
were the nobles in France and Germany ; but the lands of 
the English nobility were scattered, and they could not do 
this. So they said at last : *' If we can never become in- 
dependent of the king, let us, then, band together and force 
him to share his government with us. Only in this way 
can we check his absolute and unjust rule over us." And 
now came their chance, for one of the worst kings England 
ever had came to the throne — King John. 

Loss of Normandy. — The people of England soon found 
John to be a wretched tyrant — untruthful, dishonest, and 
treacherous. The new king rapidly lost the love and even 
the respect of all classes of his subjects. So hated was he, 
that he was at war with the pope, with France, with Scot- 
land, Ireland, and Wales, all at the same time. In the 
war with the king of France, John lost nearly all of the 
English possessions in France, including Normandy, which 

246 



WINNING ENGLISH LIBERTY 247 

the English kings had held for a hundred and fifty years ; 
and the people of his kingdom, whom he had abused by 
tyranny and by crushing taxes, refused to help him. 

John Like Other Tyrants. — In all ages it has been the 
habit of kings, who wish to rule with an iron hand, to single 
out and throw into prison those of their subjects who love 
liberty and are most likely to object to harsh rule. In 
these dark dungeons the patriots lay for months or even 
years, without a trial. Sometimes the prisoners were so 
cruelly treated that they soon died, others were murdered 
in cold blood without excuse. By such inhuman treat- 
ment, tyrants frightened their subjects into obedience and 
silence. Rich men who had become too zealous in looking 
after the rights and liberties of the people were given a 
hint of the king's displeasure in the form of a crushing fine. 
This, perhaps, accompHshed two things. It destroyed the 
noble's longing for liberty and helped to fill the king's 
empty purse. John was like other tyrants. He abused 
his subjects, and those who objected received more abuse. 
The right to a speedy trial before a fair jury cost our fore- 
fathers much in treasure and in blood before it was won. 

The Great Charter. — The nobles vowed that they would 
compel John to restore their liberties and to give them a 
charter to which the king must attach his seal, making it a 
law. The barons therefore gathered in arms and demanded 
a charter. "Why do you not ask for my kingdom?" 
cried John, in an angry passion, but it was of no use to re- 
sist, as the people were all against him. So he met the 
barons at Runnymede in 121 5 and signed the Great Charter, 
sometimes called the Magna Carta. 

The Liberties Given in the Charter. — John agreed in 
the charter that he would never again put a man in prison 
and keep him there without a trial by a jury. Neither 



248 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

would he seize a freeman's property nor banish him without 
a good and lawful reason. He promised justice and fair 
treatment to all his subjects. And, most important of all, 
the king agreed not to extort money from his people either 
as fines, aids, or taxes, without first consulting the barons 
about it. 

The Council of Barons. — But nobody believed that 
John could be trusted to obey this charter, and so a council 
of twenty-five barons was chosen to watch over their 
liberties and to declare war on John if he again started to 
disobey the charter. " They have given me five-and- 
twenty overkings," cried John in a burst of fury, flinging 
himself on the floor and gnawing sticks and straw in his 
rage. John kept up the fight against his barons for a time, 
but he soon died. And every king since has been made 
to promise to obey the Great Charter. It is the foundation 
of the liberties of all English-speaking nations. 

The King Who Broke the Charter. — The next king was 
Henry III, who reigned for more than fifty years. Henry 
was not a good king, and he naturally hated the charter, 
since it prevented him from doing as he pleased. After 
a while he began to disobey one important law in the char- 
ter. He forced dues, or taxes, upon the people without 
asking the Great Council of barons. Moreover Henry 
sent judges over the kingdom, who fined rich people un- 
justly and heavily, merely to get more money for the greedy 
king. From the cities and from rich Jews the king de- 
manded gifts, and the people hardly dared to refuse. 

Reforms First, Then Taxes. — This ill-gotten money 
was not enough for the spendthrift king and his extravagant 
court. He summoned a parliament of the Great Council 
of barons and asked them* to tax the people. Henry asked 
for a large sum of money. But the parliament of barons 



WINNING ENGLISH LIBERTY 



>49 



told him that they would not allow him one penny unless 
he first promised to cease his breaking of the Great Charter 
and his unlawful fining of the people. What could the king 
do ? He promised, and the barons levied the taxes for him. 




Westminster Abbey. 



Simon of Montfort. — Henry broke his oath, however, 
within a year and declared war on the barons, though he 
soon made peace and again promised to obey. At last 
war broke out in earnest, and the knights and barons under 



250 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

their splendid leader, Simon of Montfort, captured the 
king and put him into prison. Simon, the patriot, then 
called a general council, or parliament, to represent all 
classes of people. To tliis parhament he summoned not 
only the barons, the bishops, and several knights to speak 
for the counties, but he introduced something new by calling 
upon the towns to send representatives. This was the first 
time the towns had been allowed a voice in the government. 

A Great King. — After a time Simon died, and Henry 
patched up peace by another promise. The people were 
tired of fighting, and they endured the king until his death 
a few years later. Following him came a great king, 
Edward I, who conquered Wales and Scotland and planned 
to unite all the island of Great Britain under one law and 
one king. Edward died, however, before he could make 
his hold upon Scotland permanent. 

The Model Parliament. — In 1295 King Edward called 
the perfect or Model Parliament. For a seat in this body 
the clergy had chosen their bishops and archbishops to 
represent them, that is, to speak for them and to vote for 
laws that were for their best interests ; the chief barons 
were also summoned to act and speak for the nobihty. 
Besides these each county elected two knights to represent 
it ; each city, two citizens ; and each town, two burghers. 
And so the common people of the whole kingdom were 
represented by those whom they had chosen to go to Parlia- 
ment and to look after their interests. Such was the Model 
Parliament, so called because all the later ones were pat- 
terned after it. 

A Clever Idea. — This idea of choosing representatives 
to act for the many who could not go to act for themselves 
was a clever idea of the English. It is the only way for 
the people in a large country to have a voice in the law 



WINNING ENGLISH LIBERTY 251 

making. Had it not been for this plan, all the power of 
government would have fallen to the king and the rich 
nobles, and the common people might have suffered severely 
under bad kings. 

Teutons Love Their Freedom. — That is just what hap- 
pened among the other German nations who settled in 
France and Spain., As the small tribal kingdoms united, 
they copied their governments after that of Rome, where 
the emperor became very tyrannical. In this way the 
French and Spanish lost their liberty and their voice in 
their governments, for they did not build up this plan of 
electing representatives. We shall look to England as the 
place where the people learned how to rule themselves 
through their chosen representatives. 

Two Houses. — The Barons or Lords, after a time, met 
separately and were called the House of Lords, while the 
elected knights and citizens also met in a separate room 
and were called the House of Commons, because they were 
supposed to act for the good of the common people. From 
this time on the parliament used its right to vote or to re- 
fuse taxes as a huge club to force the successive kings to give 
them other powers, or a larger share in the government. 

The King's^Need of Money. — A great war soon broke 
out with France over the lands still held there by the Eng- 
Hsh king. This war lasted, off and on, for about a hundred 
years. The heavy expense of keeping an army in France 
forced the Enghsh king to call upon his parliament again 
and again for money. The king felt that he would do al- 
most anything rather than lose his French possessions ; but 
the Enghsh people no longer cared for the lands in France. 

Curbing the King. — So when the king asked parhament 
for more taxes, they demanded first to know what use he 
was going to make of the money. The king was angry, 



2 52 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

but he had to yield, for there was no other way to get 
money. After a while parliament would vote money only 
for certain uses, and before voting any more they ma,de 
the king show how he spent the last allowance. 

Another Step. — Again parliament used the tax as a 
club ; for when, on a certain occasion, the king needed more 
money, parliament said, " Not unless you first dismiss and 
punish your wicked and cruel officers," and the king had 
to do it. At last, by always holding this tax club over the 
king's head, parhament gained so much power that it un- 
crowned a wicked king and chose another in his stead. 

Becoming a Republic. — In this way parliament came to 
control, not only the making of laws, but even the appoint- 
ment of the king's ministers or officers who ruled over the 
people. Wicked officers of the king were brought before 
parhament, where they were judged and punished. At 
the end of the Middle Ages the people of England had gone 
a long way toward freedom and toward self-government. 
Though there was still a king, he was shorn of much of 
his power, and the government was becoming more like a 
repubhc, where people rule themselves. 

QUESTIONS 

I. What is an absolute ruler? 2. How were the hands of the 
nobles tied? 3. Who lost the English king's provinces in France? 
4. Why? 5. How was John like other tyrants ? 6. Tell about the 
Great Charter. 7. Was it a good or a bad thing? 8. Why? 
9. What is a trial by jury ? 10. Would you rather be tried by a 
jury or by a judge ? 11. Why? 12. Who broke the Great Charter ? 
13. Why? 14. How did the king get money besides levying taxes ? 
15. Tell why we should be grateful to Simon of Monfort. 16. What 
was the Model Parliament and why was it called model ? 17. What 
is meant by a representative government ? 18. Is it better or worse 
than a monarchy? iq. Why or why not? 20. How did the 
EngUsh people force their kings to share the government with them ? 



CHAPTER XX 
THE RISE OF SPAIN 

The Fall of the Goths. — When, in 711, the Gothic king, 
Roderick, was beaten and slain by the Arabs, and his army 
was scattered to the winds, the Goths gave up hope of 
saving Spain, and the Moors quickly overran it. The 
great cities yielded without a blow. 

Moors Kind to the Christians. — How many Goths 
remained among the Moors we do not know, but the Moors 
were very kind to those who wished to stay. They allowed 
them to keep, not only their homes and property, but their 
religion and forms of worship. Even in Cordova, the Moor- 
ish capital, there remained seven Christian churches for 
the use of the people. In addition to all this the Arabs 
gave the Christians the right to live under their own laws 
and officers, paying only a light tax, no heavier than was 
required of the Arabs about them. 

Moors and Goths Mixing. — So it is beheved that many 
of the Gothic subjects, especially the serfs and common 
people, besides a considerable number of nobles, preferred 
to remain in their homes under Moorish rule rather than 
to live a life of toil and hardship in the mountains. In 
after years, many of their children accepted the Moham- 
medan religion and mixed freely with the Moors, inter- 
marrying with them. 

What Became of the Gothic Nation. — However, the 
stoutest and most independent of the Gothic host refused 
to submit to their Arab conquerors. Some fled to France, 

253 



2 54 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Italy, and Britain, while others, true and devoted to their 
country, retreated behind the mountains of northern Spain. 
The Saracens did not consider these mountain provinces 
worth conquering. Even the barren plains near these 
mountains were not occupied, except by military camps. ' 

The Mountain Kingdom. — Here among the rocks and 
crags of Asturias, the Goths and their followers halted. 
They were all equal now, for there was land, such as it 
was, for everybody. So these Gothic nobles mixed with 
the slaves and common people who came with them. They 
intermarried and became the ancestors of the modern 
Spaniards. 

Pelayo and the Moors. — The Goths set their backs to 
the sea and their faces toward their enemy, the Moors, and 
chose Pelayo as their king. When the Arabs heard of the 
retreat of these people, they sent an army to subdue Pelayo 
and his mountain tribe. They found the chief and his 
band intrenched in a rocky cavern. The Moors were badly 
beaten, and thereafter the Spanish kingdom rested safely 
in its rocky nest. Hither came all the Christian Goths 
who had become dissatisfied with the rule of the Saracens, 
together with the stoutest and best of the Gothic nobles. 

Hard Life of the Mountaineers. — Among the barren 
crags the Spaniards hved their hard hfe, obtaining food 
from hunting, from scanty crops, and from plundering one 
another as well as the people of the Moorish provinces. 
It was a life similar to that of their ancestors in the Ger- 
man wilderness, save that they kept the Christian religion. 
They learned to endure hunger and fatigue, to Hve upon 
plain and scanty food, and to fight against odds. So they 
became a sober, hardy race of warriors. 

Facing About. — From their barren mountain tops, the 
Spaniards looked down upon the pleasant valleys and fruit- 



THE RISE OF SPAIN 



255 



r^' 




256 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

ful vineyards of their Gothic ancestors. They beheld 
their holy Christian churches given to infidels, with the 
hated crescents on the domes, where once was the sacred 
cross. After many years these hardy Spaniards resolved to 
quit the shelter of their mountains and to lay hold upon the 
lands of their forefathers. So, relying upon their strong right 
arms, they descended to the open, sunny plains of the Moors. 

Pushing Back the Moors. — No sooner had the Span- 
iards left the hill country than they found themselves face 
to face with the fleet cavalry of the Moors, while they them- 
selves could fight only on foot. The Arabs swept over the 
country and carried off, in a single raid, the hard-earned 
produce of a whole season. But slowly they were pushed 
back. As soon as the Spaniards reached a natural boundary 
like a river or a chain of hills, they constructed a line of 
fortifications to hold their Moorish enemies in check. 

Quarreling Among Themselves. — However, the prog- 
ress of the Spaniards in recovering Spain was slow indeed. 
As they increased in numbers and spread out, they split 
up into several little states or tribes with separate kings. 
Among these petty Spanish kings and their warlike barons 
there was bitter hatred and fierce quarreling. More 
Christian blood was wasted in these feuds than in all 
the encounters with the Moors. On account of this con- 
tinual fighting among themselves they made very slow 
headway in driving back the Mohammedan Moors. 

Love of Freedom. — In each httle state the people held 
to their Gothic liberties, their right to choose their king, and 
to share in law making. It is said that they took an oath of 
loyalty to their chosen king after this manner : " We, who 
are each of us as good as thou, and who together are more 
powerful than thou, swear to obey thee if thou dost obey 
our laws, and if not, not." 



THE RISE OF SPAIN 257 

Frontier Cities Favored. — In order to make progress 
against the Moors it was necessary to arm and drill every 
citizen, and so each warrior felt that he had a right to a 
voice in the matter of government. In order to push back 
the Arabs it was necessary to plant new towns and forts 
on the lands taken from the Moors as well as on the ex- 
posed frontiers. To these towns especial favors were given 
in order to attract settlers to them. So the frontier towns 
obtained charters of liberties, allowing them great freedom 
in ruling themselves. 

A Voice in Law Making. — In several kingdoms the towns 
sent representatives to the law-making assembly, which, in 
Spain, was called the Cortes. These representatives were 
chosen not by ballot, but by lot. This onward step toward 
freedom for the people occurred long before the Saxons of 
England had developed the representative system. 

Difficulties in Uniting. — These jealous and warlike states 
for centuries kept uniting and splitting up, only to join 
again, in a different way. The king of one state would 
conquer another and take his lands, or, perhaps, he would 
marry a princess or widowed queen of another kingdom and 
thus enlarge his domains. This would soon have united 
all these various states into one great country had not the 
Spanish rulers followed the practice of dividing up their 
kingdoms at death among their sons. So the struggle for 
union had to be fought over and over again. However, the 
little states were slowly swallowed up by the larger ones, 
until, by 1400, there were three chief kingdoms in the 
Spanish peninsula. They were Portugal, Castile, and 
Aragon. 

Queen Isabella's Suitors. — Over Castile there now 
ruled a remarkable queen named Isabella, a brilliant and 
charming woman. She had many noble and royal suitors 



258 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

from all the courts of Europe. Isabella declared she would 
not permit her kinsmen to dictate to her, but that she 
would marry whom she pleased. Among her suitors was a 
prince of Aragon, Ferdinand. To him she gave her hand, 
and it is said, " never in the annals of courtly marriage was 
a match so happy and so entirely blessed." 

Union and Peace. — Thus were united the kingdoms of 
Castile and Aragon, the two largest states in Spain, and the 
wisest people in both kingdoms rejoiced that the time had 
come when wars and feuds might cease and peace reign. 
Nor were they disappointed. 

Putting Her House in Order. — Isabella promptly set to 
work to bring the blessings of peace to her distracted king- 
dom of Castile. She compelled obedience to her laws, and 
forced the great nobles to lay aside their arms and to refer 
their disputes to impartial judges. She tore down some 
sixty of the castles, where these fighting barons lived. She 
respected the clergy, but enforced obedience from them 
too. Once when they tried to shield a criminal because he 
was a churchman, she punished some of the priests and 
bishops, and banished others from the country. Feuds and 
bloodshed ceased, and the people believed the Golden Age 
had returned. 

Ferdinand a Strong King. — Ferdinand did for Aragon 
what Isabella had done for Castile. He curbed the warlike 
barons, and knit his kingdom firmly together. Ferdinand 
was not only a great king and a soldier, but he was a tactful 
statesman with a clear head. He saw that Spain could 
never be great without a strong central government. He 
promptly made his laws respected by the barons, and 
did away with feuds and private wars. 

Getting More Power. — With their home kingdoms in 
order and their subjects obedient and loyal, the king and 



THE RISE OF SPAIN 259 

queen had a firm foundation for the future. Next Ferdinand 
and Isabella wished to drive out the Moors, and thus join 
together all the fragments of the old Gothic kingdom. So 
they quietly and gradually stole away the Hberties of their 
people, because if the people had a voice in the government, 
they might disagree with their rulers and hinder their plans. 
'' When anything needs to be done," said Ferdinand, " one 
head is better than a thousand " ; and in his smooth and 
crafty way, he contrived to take away the rights of his 
subjects and still not come to blows with them. 

The People Losing Power. — Ferdinand no longer called 
upon the people to send representatives to the Cortes. He 
did not do this all at once, but slowly, one town or province 
at a time, upon one excuse or another. It was not long 
before Ferdinand and Isabella were the absolute rulers of all 
Spain, save what was still held by the Moors. The people 
had no more liberties than the people of France. But the 
king and queen were good rulers and did not mistreat their 
subjects. 

Knights of the Cross in Spain. — After the Crusades the 
knights from all parts of Europe flocked in large numbers to 
Spain to help fight the Moors. The pope lent his aid by 
the promise of paradise for those who fell in battle with the 
hated infidels. Thus the zeal and enthusiasm of the 
Spaniards arose to a high pitch. They felt that they were 
fighting, not only their own battles, but the battles for the 
church and for all Christian countries. 

Persecution. — Isabella and Ferdinand now made one 
sad mistake. They tried to force everybody in Spain to 
believe exactly what the CathoHc Church taught. Any one 
who believed more or less than the church dictated was 
to be punished as a heretic if discovered. Isabella hoped 
that this would make all the people good Catholics, but 



26o DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Ferdinand had a lower purpose. He wanted money to 
carry on his war against the Moors, and this would be a 
good excuse for robbing the rich Jews. 

The Inquisition. — So the dreadful Inquisition was es- 
tablished in Spain. It was a court made up of heartless 
men who did horrible deeds in the name of Christ. Every 
person guilty of heresy, that is, disbelief, must confess it 
openly to this court or be burned at the stake. Heretics 
were not allowed to leave the country until they were 
plundered. In twelve years two thousand Jews were burnt 
alive in Andalusia, while seventeen thousand more had to 
give up all their possessions and leave the country. This 
murdering for money or because of religious belief was 
much worse than any savage deeds of the Apache Indians. 
But Isabella thought it was her duty to make all people 
believe just what the church taught. 

Fighting the Moors Again. — Ferdinand was content, for 
he got enough money to carry on his war against the 
Moors. The Moorish kings had been losing territory to the 
Spaniards, and had been paying tribute to them to prevent 
war. One king of Granada, when asked for his annual 
tribute, replied that " the mints of Granada no longer 
coined gold but steel." Tliis haughty reply brought on a 
war which went on for years with growing success for the 
Spaniards. 

The War Queen. — Isabella was the soul of this war. 
Her object was not to get more territory, but to spread 
the Catholic religion. It was for the same desire, to extend 
her faith, that she gave ear at this time to Christopher 
Columbus, who visited her court, praying for funds to make 
a voyage westward to the Indies. 

Preparing Arms and Powder. — The Moors held strong 
positions and were well fortified. The Spaniards could 




THE RISE OF SPAIN 261 

not easily capture their walled cities. But Isabella sent 
to England, France, and Germany for engineers and iron- 
workers. Forges were constructed in the Spanish camps, 
a^d materials were prepared for making cannons, balls, and 
powder. Large quantities of powder were also imported 
from abroad. Thus Isabella soon had a train of artillery 
better than that of any other ruler in Europe. 

The Early Cannon. — More than twenty cannons used 
in one siege were afterwards used as columns in the market 
place of one of the captured towns. They were huge and 
clumsy, the largest 
being twelve feet long. 
They were made of 
iron bars, two inches 
wide by twelve feet 
long and held together 

. Early Cannon. 

by iron belts and rmgs. 

They were made fast to the gun carriages. They could not 
be aimed either up or down, to right or left, without mov- 
ing the whole gun carriage. They hurled balls of iron or 
marble more than a foot in diameter, which weighed one 
hundred and seventy-five pounds. These early cannons 
could not fire more than forty shots in one day, while some 
modern guns hre one thousand bullets a minute. 

Moorish Days Numbered. — Nevertheless these crude 
guns served to batter down the walls of forts and to assist 
the Spaniards in capturing Granada, the splendid capital 
of the Moors. For eight hundred years the Moors had 
possessed the fairest lands of the peninsula, and had 
taught Europe many valuable lessons in art, learning, 
and crafts ; but at last they were to make way for the 
Spaniard who seemed more able to cairy on the work of 
civiHzation. 



262 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Fall of Granada. — The Moorish king yielded the keys of 
his beloved city, and the Christian army entered in triumph. 
As the Moorish king rode away he reached a hill from which 
he had his last view of Granada. " He checked his horse, 
and, as his eye for the last time wandered over the scenes 
of his departed greatness, his heart swelled, and he burst 
into tears. 'Alas!' exclaimed the unhappy exile, 'when 
were woes ever equal to mine?'" The scene of this 
event is still pointed out to the traveler by the people of 
the district ; and the rocky height from which the Moorish 
chief took his sad farewell is still called " The Sigh of the 
Moor." 

"There was crying in Granada when the sun was going down, 

Some calling on the Trinity, some calling on Mahoun ; 
Here passed away the Koran, there in the cross was borne, 

And here was heard the Christian bell, and there the Moorish horn ; 
Te Deum Laudamus was up the Alcala sung. 

Down from Alhambra's minarets were all the crescents flung ; 
The arms thereon of Aragon and Castile they display; 

One king comes in triumph, one weeping goes away." 

A United Spain. — By this conquest the Spanish gained a 
large extent of country with a fruitful and temperate climate 
besides a long coast line dotted with good harbors. The 
scattered fragments of the ancient Visigothic kingdom 
were again united in one monarchy, and Spain soon rose to 
the level of the greatest European countries. 

One People. — The Moorish war did much to bind the 
people of Spain together as one nation. All parts of the 
country were interested in the war and fought against 
the same enemy. When a victory was won, the Spaniards 
all rejoiced together. In this way, they came to look upon 
one another as brothers, no matter in what province they 
dwelt or what dialect they spoke ; and so the most distant 



THE RISE OF SPAIN 263 

provinces were knit together in a bond of union that has 
remained to this day. The dialect of Castile gradually 
took the place of all others and became the language of the 
Spanish nation. 

Spain in the Lead. — These wars were a fine training 
school for the Spanish soldiers. They learned how to drill, 
how to obey commands promptly, and how to fight. The 
wars also developed some great generals among the leaders. 
These celebrated captains and war-stained veterans won 
fame and respect for Spain, all over Europe. Having 
united his own country, Ferdinand now looked for new 
worlds to conquer. While other countries were still busy 
with troubles or problems at home, Spain was reaching out 
to other lands. 

QUESTIONS 

I. What became of the Goths in Spain when the Moors came? 

2. Who was Pelayo and what did he accomplish for his people ? 

3. Describe the way in which the Spanish Goths pushed back the 
Moors. 4. Tell about Isabella's suitors. 5. Was it well for Spain 
that Isabella and Ferdinand were married ? 6. Why? 7. How did 
Ferdinand take from the people their share in their government ? 
8. Tell about the Inquisition in Spain. 9. What was Isabella's 
purpose? 10. Tell about the last war with the Moors. 11. De- 
scribe the early cannon. 12. What made Spain the strongest nation 
of all in those days ? 



CHAPTER XXI 
MARCO POLO AND THE EAST 

Europe Facing Eastward. — For many centuries the 
most advanced nations of the world had formed a fringe 
about the Mediterranean Sea. To them, this inland ocean 
seemed the center of the world. The people of Europe 
had always stood with their faces toward the east and their 
backs to the stormy Atlantic, fearing to venture far in 
their frail ships upon this " Sea of Darkness " with its 
unknown terrors. What really lay to the westward nobody 
knew. To the south, no traveler had ever gone beyond 
the burning sands of the Sahara, while the frozen plains 
of the far north were occupied by fierce and barbarous 
peoples. Thus it was toward the east only that Europeans 
turned their gaze. 

Dim Knowledge of the East. — Since the ancient days 
they had heard strange stories about the dim and distant 
East. Long before the Crusades, Europe had fought many 
wars with the nations of Asia ; but it was through commerce, 
mainly, that the West gained its scanty knowledge of China, 
Japan, and the East Indies. The luxuries of the East 
were carried by caravans to the shores of the Mediterranean, 
and the spices and rich silks passed through many hands — 
so many that the people at one end of the route knew almost 
nothing of those at the other end. The Romans, to whom 
silk was known, supposed that the threads of this beautiful 
fabric grew upon trees or plants, so dim was their knowledge 
of China. 

264 



MARCO POLO AND THE EAST 



265 



Wares Exchanged. — During the Middle Ages, as we 
have read, spices came to be in great demand throughout 
western Europe. People were glad to buy, at high prices, 
cloves, cinnamon, allspice, ginger, nutmeg, and other 
spices, to season their coarse foods and to heal diseases. 
Certain of the spices were worth their weight in gold. In 
return for spice and silk, Europeans sent back to Asia, gold, 
silver, copper, iron, and tin. They also gathered wool, 




Venetian Ships. 



hemp, and dried fish for the slow-sailing ships and caravans 
to carry back to the East. 

Rise of Venice and Genoa. — The Crusades greatly 
quickened this profitable trade, as we have seen, and many 
cities of western Europe were eager to get a portion of the 
rich commerce. The lion's share fell into the hands of 
two thriving Italian cities, Venice and Genoa ; and the 
Mediterranean was filled with their richly laden ships. 
Merchants set out from these cities upon long journeys 
among strange peoples, where white men had never been 
before. 

The Polos. — Among the great Venetian merchants were 
two noblemen, Nicolo Polo and his brother, Mafiio, whose 



266 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



business often carried them to Constantinople. They 
started eastward from that city (1260) on a trading 
journey through the Black Sea, and the farther they went 
along the caravan routes, the better bargains they made, 
until they had at last passed nearly across the great continent 
of Asia. Finally they arrived at the court of the Great 
Khan in northwestern China, or Cathay, as it was then 
called. The Polos were kindly received here, and the 

noble ruler, in his desire to 
civilize his subjects, sent 
them back with rich gifts 
and a message to the pope, 
asking for rnissionaries to 
be sent to his people. The 
brothers at last reached 
Venice, only to learn that 
the pope whom they remem- 
bered w'as dead. The new 
pope offered only two friars, 
and they, in dread of the 
tierce Tartars along the 
way, refused to go. 

Marco Polo Becomes a 
Traveler. — Again the Polo brothers set out for China 
(1271), taking with them Nicolo's son, Marco, now a lad of 
seventeen. After four years of toilsome travel, they 
reached the presence of the Great Khan near the northern 
end of the Great Wall of China. Young Marco quickly 
learned to speak and write several languages of Asia, and 
was soon made an officer of the Khan. While his father 
and uncle were busy filling their pockets with gold, Marco 
was acting as a trusted servant of the monarch, making 
long journeys through the vast regions of China. The 




Marco Polo. 



MARCO POLO AND THE EAST 267 

Khan held the Polos, especially the young Marco, in such 
high esteem that when they wished to return to Venice 
with their riches, he was unwilling to let them depart. 

A Chance to Return. — At last, in 1292, a royal bride 
was to be sent from Peking to the king of Persia — a long, 
long journey to the West. The overland route was unsafe 
because of a war among the interior tribes. So the bride 
was to be sent to Tabriz by water. It was a long and 
dangerous ocean voyage, which called for trusted seamen. 
All Venetians were thought to be seasoned sea dogs, so the 
royal bride was piloted to her western bridegroom by the 
Polos, who were dehghted at the thought of returning home. 

The Homeward Journey. — They set out from a port of 
China, sailing southward along the coast of Asia. They 
passed by Sumatra into the Indian Ocean. At last, after 
a voyage of two years, they reached the Persian Gulf. 
Leaving the royal bride at Tabriz, they pushed on by way 
of Constantinople, arriving at Venice after an absence of 
four-and-twenty years. 

Unknown at Home. — Their kinsmen had long since 
given them up for dead. The elder Polos had grown old and 
gray, while Marco was much changed. When they came 
to their own palace, in their shabby clothes of foreign cut, 
they were turned away. A few days afterward they 
invited a party of old friends to a splendid dinner at the 
best hotel in Venice. It is said that the Polos, clad in 
velvet and lace, and still unrecognized, entertained their 
guests royally. 

Displaying Diamonds. — Then they brought forth three 
shabby coats, ripped open the seams, and began pulling out 
and heaping upon the table great treasures of diamonds 
and emeralds, rubies and sapphires, to the astonishment 
of the guests, who cried out that these must be the long-lost 



268 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Polos. When the news became known about Venice, the 
whole city, rich and poor, flocked to the house to embrace 
them and to show them respect. 

Marco Polo a Prisoner — His Book. — Three years later, 
Venice and Genoa being at war, Marco Polo took command 
of a Venetian warship, and in the sea light that followed was 
captured and imprisoned at Genoa for a year. While 
here, he delighted his fellow-prisoners with wonderful 
stories about his travels in China and the East. One of 
the prisoners, who knew a little French, wrote down these 
stories as Marco told them, and made a book, which 
was one of the greatest literary works of the Middle Ages. 
It told more new facts about the earth's surface than any 
other volume of those days. 

His Story Told. — In this book Marco told how the three 
Polos had traveled on and on toward the sunrise "for a 
thousand days," until they came into the presence of the 
Great Khan. He told about the caravan routes in many 
lands ; about Sumatra and Borneo and the Spice Islands ; 
about Calicut, where a fine cotton goods called calico 
was made and where Chinese ships came to unload their 
cargoes of silks and spices. Marco told of Japan, where 
the emperor's palace was roofed with gold. In this book 
were many things that were indeed true, but there was 
also much that was mere fairy tale or hearsay. This story 
was copied by scribes, printing being still unknown, and 
the rich merchants and learned men all over Europe read it 
and talked about it. 

Not All Fairy Tales. — The ignorant minds of those days 
were staggered by all these new and interesting facts of 
geography. The learned people thought that the book 
was full of fairy tales. But one point brought out in this 
tale could not be denied, and it set the educated people 



MARCO POLO AND THE EAST 269 

to thinking. An early geographer, named Ptolemy, had 
said that Asia extended on and on, and that no one might 
reach the edge of it because of swamps. But Marco Polo 
had proved this to be untrue, and had shown that there 
was a great ocean east of China and Japan, upon which were 
many ships engaged in trade. This was certain, for the 
Polos had actually made the voyage from the coast of 
China to the Persian Gulf. Some learned men who believed 
the earth to be round like a ball began to wonder whether 
the great sea east of China might not be the same as the 
" Sea of Darkness " to the west of Spain and France. 

The Turk in Europe. — Something now happened that 
made the people of Europe not only think, but act. The 
hateful Turk, whose westward march had been checked by 
the Crusades for a time, was again on the warpath. The 
Turks had actually crossed into Europe, secured a foothold 
there, and were threatening to capture Constantinople, 
the center of most of the eastern trade. 

Cutting off Trade Routes. — Every step gained by the 
Turks meant cutting off more of the caravan routes to the 
East. At last, in 1453, Constantinople fell into their hands, 
and this ended the eastern trade through the Black Sea, 
which was the route then followed by the Genoese mer- 
chants. At the same time, other bands of Turks were 
rapidly overrunning Syria and threatening Egypt ; and if 
Egypt should fall to them, Venice's route to India and the 
East by way of Egypt and the Red Sea would hkewise be 
cut off. Besides these evils, the Turkish pirates were 
swarming about the eastern end of the Mediterranean 
itself, and driving away all Christian vessels. 

A New Route Wanted. — What was to be done ? Should 
the people of Europe try to get along without the luxuries 
of the East and should the rich merchants and traders give 



270 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

up all their profitable business because the eastern routes 
were cut off by the Turk? At any cost, some new route 
to the East must be found. How much safer it would be if 
an all-water, an outside route, could be discovered! Such 
a water route would not only be safer but far cheaper, 
since transportation by caravan was very costly indeed. 

QUESTIONS 

I. Was Europe interested in the East or West in those days? 
2. Why? 3. Why was so Httle known of the East ? 4. Why were 
spices wanted in Europe? 5. What made Venice and Genoa grow 
into important cities? 6. Tell about the Polos and their journey. 
7. Their return. 8. How did Marco Polo come to write a book, 
and what good did it do ? 9. What were the Turks doing at this 
time? 10. ■ Trace the trade routes of Venice and Genoa. 11. Why 
was a new route wanted ? 



CHAPTER XXII 
PRINCE HENRY AND THE PORTUGUESE 

Two All- water Routes. — The all- water route to China 
and the Spice Islands must be sought for upon the Atlantic, 
the "Sea of Darkness." Some geographers declared that 
one might easily sail around Africa to the East, while others 
held that the world was a globe, much smaller than we 
have since found it to be, and that China might be reached 
by sailing directly westward across the Atlantic. But 
no one had yet been bold enough to defy the terrors of 
either route. It was easier to believe in such ideas than 
to act upon them, because such a voyage called for great 
courage. 

One Sea Route Frozen, the Other Boiling. — Men who 
had sailed to the far north beyond England and Scotland, 
and beyond the Shetland Islands, found the winter nights 
there very long and cold. The lands were covered with 
deep snow, and the ocean was filled with mighty icebergs. 
The farther north they went the colder it grew. Other 
travelers, who had gone southward along the coast of 
Africa, found that the hot climate grew hotter as they 
proceeded toward the equator. Thus people came to be- 
lieve that in the extreme northern country the land and 
even the sea was frozen solid, while in the south the sea 
must be boiling hot, and the land inhabited only by goblins 
and monstrous reptiles. Moreover, they said, the southern 
atmosphere became fiery, and if a ship ventured too far, 
it would be swallowed up in a steaming whirlpool. 

271 



272 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

The Down-hill Voyage. — Sailors were discouraged, too, 
by other stories. People had noticed that when a ship 
disappeared over the horizon, it seemed to go down hill, 
because the lower parts of the ship dropped below the 
horizon first, then the other parts of the vessel, and, finally, 
the topmost sail. The fearsome sailors thought that if they 
went too far from land on the down-hill voyage, they might 
never get back up again. 

Pulling the Nails Out. — It was beheved by some people 
that there was a mountain of loadstone in the bottom of 
the sea, guarding the entrance into the Indian Ocean, and 
that it drew all metal to it, even pulhng the nails from the 
ships that tried to sail over it, and wrecking them. These 
difficulties were mere fancies. There were, however, many 
real difficulties for the sailors of those Dark Ages. 

Some Real Difficulties. — The ships of those days were 
crude and clumsy. They were not as swift as those that 
the Northmen had sailed hundreds of years before. In 
size they were no larger than our yachts, and far less active. 
Against head winds these awkward ships, propelled only 
by sails, made very slow progress. They had to sail zigzag 
against the wind and often had to go four miles in this 
crooked fashion to reach a point only one mile away. With 
no metal below the ship's water line, the wooden hull was 
likely to be pierced by worms burrowing into the wood. 
These worms were more to be feared than all the monsters 
of the deep, for they sometimes sent ships to the bottom 
of the ocean. 

The Ship's Provisions. — Another difficulty was the 
question of supplying the sailors in these tiny ships with 
food enough for a long voyage. People lived mainly on 
a meat diet. With nothing but dry, hard bread and salt 
beef or pork the sailors was soon attacked by that dreaded 



PRINCE HENRY AND THE PORTUGUESE 



273 



disease, scurvy, caused by lack of fresh vegetable food. Fre- 
quently on long voyages half of the sailors died from dis- 
ease, or, if they went too far from land, starvation carried 
them off. 

Fear of the Compass. — The compass had been perfected, 
and this enabled the pilot to steer his ship straight when 
the sky was hidden by clouds or fog. But so ignorant 
and superstitious were the seamen, that for a long time 
few would use this wonderful instrument. They thought 
that it had been invented 
by the devil, and might ^ 

lead them into some 
awful whirlpool. 

Direction and Dis- 
tance from Port. — The 
compass pointed faith- 
fully to the north, but 
there are other things a 
sailor upon the trackless 
blue ocean wishes to 
know besides the direc- 
tion of the north pole. 

He wishes to know how far he is from home, or from 
his port, and in what direction he must sail to reach it. 
If he knows his distance from the equator, which we call 
latitude, and his distance from the coast of Europe, which 
we call longitude ; then he knows exactly which way to steer 
and how many miles he must go to reach port. 

The Jack Staff. — Sailors had noticed that as they sailed 
north, the north star appeared more nearly overhead, while 
if a southerly voyage was taken, the same star sank gradu- 
ally toward the northern horizon. If they had an instru- 
ment that could measure the height of the north star, they 




Finding the Latitude. 



2 74 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

would know their latitude. A rude instrument called a 
jack staff was invented. It was an absurd instrument, 
but it showed a ship's latitude within a hundred miles or so 
of the truth. To-day we have quadrants that tell latitude 
exactly. 

Distances East and West. — How was a seaman to know 
his longitude, or his distance from the coast of Europe? 
There was no such instrument as a clock, or a cyclometer, 
to measure the distance traveled. Ships usually sailed due 
north or due south to the parallel of the place they were aim- 
ing for, then turning a square corner, they sailed due east 
or due west to it. The sailors roughly guessed how far 
they had gone per day according to the help or hindrance 
of the wind. By watching bubbles on the water, as the ship 
crawled along, they made a guess of the speed per hour, while 
the sand in the hourglass kept record of the time. Upon 
approaching shore, they often found themselves a hundred 
miles north or south of the place where they thought they 
were, and five hundred miles too far east or west of their 
port. 

Sailing and Learning. — But in spite of ignorance and 
superstition, in spite of small and clumsy ships, hard to 
guide, there were bold sailors who kept J)ushing a little 
farther on each voyage ; and an ocean route from Europe to 
Asia was sure to be discovered. 

Henry the Navigator. — There was born in Portugal 
(1394) a child named Prince Henry, whose life was to be 
spent in trying to sail around Africa .to Asia. Prince 
Henry and the Portuguese had learned to sail the seas in 
their wars with the Moors in Spain and Africa. At one 
time, when in Africa, Prince Henry heard that far down 
the west coast of that country gold was found and carried by 
caravans to the Moors. He thought that the Gold Coast 



PRINCE HENRY AND THE PORTUGUESE 275 



would be a fine place to reach by water, then the yellow 
metal might be carried to Portugal, while, at the same time, 
the wild African tribes found there might be Christianized. 

Better a Scholar Than a Warrior. — So Prince Henry 
came home from Africa to devote himself to the study of 
geography and 
navigation. He 
was already famous 
as a warrior, and 
many chances came 
to him to win 
further glory by 
leading an army 
for the pope or for 
King Henry V of 
England or for the 
king of Spain. 
Still other flatter- 
ing offers came, but 
Prince Henry re- 
fused them, one 
and all, and chose 
to live in a lonely 
secluded spot 
where he might study without interruption. 

Prince Henry's Observatory. — Upon a rocky headland 
called Point St. Vincent, overlooking the sea, Prince Henry 
built a high tower ; and to this tower he invited teachers of 
map drawing, shipbuilding, and seamanship from foreign 
countries. One day his brother brought him a copy of 
Marco Polo's book; and as he read of the wonders of 
China, Japan, and the Spice Islands, he was more deter- 
mined than ever to find an ocean route to the East. 




Henry the Navigator. 



276 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Pushing Southward. — So he sent forth his captains to 
plow the seas far south along the coast of Africa, while he 
spent his hours in viewing the stars, in reading books of 
travel, and in studying geography. The returning captains, 
at first sight of the home land, beheld the high tower of the 
prince, and in reply to his anxious inquiries as to how far 
to the south they had gone, and whether they had found the 
end of Africa, they always returned a disappointing answer. 
They had, they said, gone farther than any captain before 
them ; but their sailors had refused to go any farther, 
because they feared the boiling sea, the monsters of the deep, 
or the down-hill voyage. They had discovered islands, the 
Madeiras, the Canaries, the Azores ; but Africa, they said, 
appeared to have no end. 

The Gold Coast Reached. — Prince Henry laughed at 
their superstitious fears, and sent them back to sail around 
Africa. The prince had enemies who scoffed at his plans 
and objected to spending so much money on these worthless 
expeditions, but Henry kept on. At last his sailors crept 
southward as far as Cape Palmas, where the coast line 
turns eastward along the Gulf of Guinea. Now they 
took courage, beheving that at last the end of the continent 
had been reached. Instead they came upon the Gold Coast 
and loaded their ships with gold, ivory, and slaves. When 
they returned with this precious cargo, all Portugal was wild 
with excitement and joy. The people now took a greater 
interest in Prince Henry's work and ceased to criticize him 
for the money he was spending. 

Henry's Death. — Prince Henry did not live to see his 
ships sail around Africa, but he had aroused so much 
interest that, after his death, several gallant captains con- 
tinued to push southward on long, long voyages of thousands 
of miles. Each one reached a more distant point than 



PRINCE HENRY AND THE PORTUGUESE 



277 



his predecessor before turning back to the Gold Coast for 
a cargo for the homeward journey. So slowly did they 
proceed, that one voyage often took a year or more. 

Cape of Good Hope. — At last in i486, Bartholomew Diaz, 
while carrying the Portuguese flag four hundred miles south 
of the Tropic of Capricorn, was caught and driven southward 
before a heavy wind for nearly two weeks without seeing 
land. As soon as pos- 
sible he turned his ship 
eastward, expecting soon 
to touch the coast. But 
Diaz was then beyond 
the southernmost point 
of Africa, and after sail- 
ing eastward for a while 
and seeing no land, he 
turned north and 
touched Africa two hun- 
dred miles east of the 
end of the continent. 
He followed the coast 
northeastward for several days until he saw it turn to the 
north. He now felt sure that he had passed the end of Af- 
rica. His worn-out sailors refused to go farther, however, 
and Diaz turned back reluctantly from the Indian Ocean 
toward the Atlantic. On his homeward way, Diaz passed 
in full sight of the southernmosl cape of Africa ; and he 
named it the Stormy Cape. But upon his arrival at Lisbon, 
King John said, " Let it rather be called the Cape of Good 
Hope, for the chances of reaching the East by this route 
are now bright." Diaz had really discovered the end of 
Africa; but it was ten years before a ship sailed around 
Africa to India. On this voyage with Diaz was an Italian 




278 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

sailor named Bartholomew Columbus, a younger brother 
of Christopher Columbus, of whose courage and daring we 
shall read in the next chapter. 

QUESTIONS 

I. What two water routes were suggested? 2. What objections 
did the people have to each? 3. What did the people mean by a 
down-hiU voyage ? 4. Explain the beUef about the Indian Ocean. 

5. What were some of the real difficulties in sea travel in those days ? 

6. What was the jack staff? 7. Do you admire Henry the Navi- 
gator ? 8. For what ? 9. Why was it easier to make progress down 
the coast of Africa after the Gold Coast was reached ? 10. Tell about 
Diaz's voyage to Good Hope. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



COLUMBUS AND THE NEW WORLD 



Genoa and the All- water Route. — When Constantinople 
fell to the Turks in 1453, the merchants and sailors of 
Genoa began to take great interest in finding an all-water 
route to the Spice Islands. Hearing stories of Prince 
Henry's voyages down the coast of Africa, many Genoese 
sailors were drawn to Portugal to take part in them, for 

they believed that it was 
possible to sail around 
Africa to India and the 
East. Among these Gen- 
oese sailors at Lisbon was 
one named Christopher 
Colombo, or Columbus. 

Early Life of Columbus. 
— Of his boyhood and his 
early hfe, we know very 
little. His father was a 
wool comber — one who 
combs the fibers of wool 
straight so that it may be 
spun into yarn. Christo- 
pher spent his youth partly in going to school and partly 
in trips upon the blue Mediterranean. He learned Latin, 
a Httle geography, and something of the stars, as such 
knowledge was needed for the sailor life to which he was 
looking forward. He must have taken part, now and then, 

279 




Christopher Columbus. 



28o DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

in sea battles with Turkish corsairs and in pirate expedi- 
tions. He became a skillful sailor, and, between trips at 
sea, he earned his Hving in Genoa by making maps and 
charts, which were in much demand in the growing sea 
trade. 

Was Columbus a Teuton ? — Columbus was tall and 
powerfully built. He had a ruddy face, red hair, and blue 
eyes. We know that most ItaHans are dark ; so it is likely 
that Columbus descended from some barbarian tribe that 
settled in Italy, and that he was, after all, a Teuton and a 
distant kinsman of ours. 

Columbus at Lisbon. — Christopher was later attracted 
to Lisbon, whither his young brother, Bartholomew, had 
gone some years before. Lisbon was then the center of 
interest in geography, in travel, and discovery. Here 
Columbus spent his time making maps, and now and 
then taking a voyage down the coast of Africa upon the 
stormy Atlantic. 

His Island Life. — While at Lisbon Columbus was 
married and went to live in quiet at Porto Santo, a little 
island three hundred miles out upon the blue Atlantic. 
It was here that he began to think of the best way to reach 
the Indies. He received from his father-in-law many 
valuable sailing charts, and studied these diligently. Now 
and then some ship bound for the Gold Coast touched at 
the island, and probably Columbus talked with the sailors 
about the great problem of how to reach China by water. 

Planning a Western Voyage. — After a time Columbus 
went back to Lisbon to live. He began to talk of a west- 
ward voyage to the East. The Portuguese had found, to 
their disappointment, that beyond the Gulf of Guinea 
the coast of Africa turned southward again, and long, long 
voyages had failed to find the end of the continent. This 



COLUMBUS AND THE NEW WORLD 



281 



was before the discovery of the cape by Diaz. The dis- 
tance already traveled was so great that people began to 
wonder whether there might not be a shorter route to Asia. 

Toscanelli. — The most famous geographer of those days 
was Toscanelli, who Hved at Florence, Italy. To him 
Columbus wrote a letter, 
asking what he thought 
about sailing westward 
across the Atlantic. Co- 
lumbus also sent him a 
chart that he had made 
of the Atlantic as he be- 
lieved it might be, show- 
ing Europe on the east of 
it and Cathay on the 
west. Toscanelli wrote 
back, saying that it was 
certainly a shorter jour- 
ney straight westward to 

China than it was by way of Guinea and Africa. He sent 
Columbus a map upon which he showed Asia extending so far 
east that it reached California. East of this he had placed 
Japan, about where the West Indies are. He told Colum- 
bus that a voyage across the Atlantic was a grand and 
a noble project and that its achievement would bring him, 
not only great riches, but great honor. 

Believing the Earth a Round BalL — From the days 
of ancient Greece wise men had believed the world to be 
round, and at the time when Columbus hved people of 
education had come to accept this belief. It was for 
Columbus to show the sublime courage of proving his 
conviction in the face of all the mysterious terrors of the 
" Sea of Darkness." 




Toscanelli. 



282 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Two Fortunate Mistakes. — In estimating the distance 
straight to China, Columbus rehed upon ToscanelK's map ; 
and thus he made two fortunate mistakes. He calculated 
that the earth was somewhat smaller than it is, and he 
thought that Asia extended as far to the east as the Gulf of 
Mexico. On account of these two beliefs, Columbus was 
confident that a voyage of twenty-five hundred miles west 
from the Canaries' would land him on the wonderful island 
of Japan. This was less than the distance from Lisbon 
to Guinea. If he had known that the distance westward 
to China was twelve thousand miles, how poor his chances 
of obtaining men and money would have been! His 
twenty-five hundred miles scarcely carried him to the un- 
known West Indies ; and, of course, he never dreamed 
that the great continent of America lay across his path. 

Making Up His Mind. — About 1482 Columbus returned 
to Lisbon from a voyage to Guinea. He had found this 
country far away, and Africa seemed to extend on and on, 
no one knew how many miles. It was then that he made 
up his mind to try the straight westward route, if he could 
get the ships and sailors. A fine new astrolabe had just 
been invented, which enabled sailors to keep their latitude 
at sea. With this new instrument they felt a Httle safer 
upon the ocean. The Portuguese were now pushing south- 
ward in earnest. 

Columbus and King John. — Columbus appUed to 
King John of Portugal for men and ships for his daring 
westward voyage. King John called his learned men to- 
gether and asked them what they thought of Columbus's 
idea. Some said that it was nothing but a dream ; others, 
that Asia did not extend as far to the east as Columbus 
maintained ; and still others told the king that the voyage 
would cost too much. Moreover, they thought Columbus, 



COLUMBUS AND THE NEW WORLD 283 

who was a foreigner, wanted too many rewards and too 
much honor for his share, if the voyage were a success. 

Playing Unfair. — King John, who had some of Prince 
Henry's love of bold deeds, wanted to try the venture ; 
but he feared that if he spent a large sum of money and the 
enterprise failed, the whole kingdom would laugh at his 
folly. He did not mean to be unfair to Columbus, but he 
planned to try the experiment quietly, so that if he failed, 
no one would be the wiser. He secretly sent out a sliip with 
the charts of Columbus, to sail westward from the Cape 
Verde Islands. But the sailors and the pilot soon lost 
heart at the great stormy sea before them, and returned to 
Lisbon. Columbus heard of the trick and left Portugal 
in anger. 

At the Court of Spain. — We next find him in Spain at 
the court of Ferdinand and Isabella at Cordova. The 
Spanish sovereigns were at war trying to drive out the 
Moors. So they had little time to consider the plans of 
Columbus, but they were sufficiently interested to call a 
council of learned men, including the professors from the 
famous university of Cordova. Some thought that his 
scheme was worth trying, but others ridiculed him. 

The Earth Round? Folly. — One churchman declared 
that Columbus was a madman. " Is there any one so 
foolish," said he, "as to believe that the world is round, and 
that people live on the other side with their feet toward 
ours : people who walk with their heels upward and their 
heads hanging down : where trees grow with their branches 
downward and where it rains, hails, and snows upward? " 
And he laughed Columbus to scorn. So at this time nothing 
was done by the Spanish rulers to aid our hero. 

Asking England and France. — Columbus's brother, 
Bartholomew, had just now returned to Lisbon from his 



284 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

voyage with Diaz in which they had discovered the Cape of 
Good Hope. Columbus hastened to Lisbon to see him. 
After talking it over and thinking of the long, long distance 
to Good Hope, Columbus was more anxious than ever to 
attempt the westward route. So he sent Bartholomew to 
England and to France to seek aid for him. 

Reception in England and France. — We hear of Barthol- 
omew first in England at the court of Henry VII. What he 
said to the English ruler we do not know, but Henry loved 
his money too much to risk it upon such an undertaking. 
From England Bartholomew went to the court of France. 
Several years passed, and Columbus heard nothing from his 
brother. 

Patiently Waiting. — All this while Columbus seems to 
have been waiting for an answer from Spain. But the 
Spanish were still lighting the Moors and too busy to give 
ear to him. After years of vain effort in Spain, Columbus 
was thoroughly disappointed. He determined to go to 
France. It is said that the children of Seville and Cordova 
looked upon him as insane, and when they saw him pass, 
they tapped their foreheads and smiled. 

Growing Old, but Resolute Still. — Columbus had now 
been trying for nearly twenty years to interest some ruler 
in taking up his plans, and old age was coming on. So with 
his little son, Diego, he set out to leave Spain forever. He 
stopped at a monastery near Palos for bread for his boy. 
The prior, named Perez, a worthy monk, listened to his 
story and took a deep interest in it. He had formerly 
been the father confessor to the Spanish queen, and he now 
sent her a letter pleading for Columbus. 

Come Back. — Queen Isabella summoned the monk to 
her, and by him sent some money to Columbus, inviting 
him to return to her court. With this money Columbus 



COLUMBUS AND THE NEW WORLD 



285 




286 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

bought a mule and a new suit of clothes, and set out for 
the Spanish court to lay his case before the queen. 

Again Before Learned Men. — Upon his arrival, his plan 
was argued before a body of learned men. Several church- 
men were now in favor of aiding Columbus, but others 
continued to ridicule the undertaking. Then Isabella prom- 
ised to take up the scheme as soon as they could capture 
Granada, the last of the Moorish towns. Columbus waited 
again, but not long, for the Moorish capital soon fell to the 
Christians ; and nobody rejoiced more than did our hero to 
see the cross take the place of the crescent in Granada. 

Help Again Refused. — But instead of the help that he 
was expecting to receive, he was again accused of demand- 
ing too much power over any heathen lands that he might 
discover ; and he was finally denied aid. With his last 
hope crushed Columbus set out upon his mule for France ; 
but some one who favored him ran to the queen and begged 
her not to let this splendid offer pass on to France or Eng- 
land. He told her how her enemies would laugh and her 
friends sorrow, if France should get the honor and riches 
from this westward voyage. 

Changing Her Mind. — Suddenly the queen changed her 
mind, and a fleet messenger was sent to stop Columbus. 
Spurring with all speed, he overtook him at a lonely bridge 
about six miles from Granada. Columbus, with many 
doubts, turned back his mule a second time toward the 
Spanish court. This time his plans were accepted by Queen 
Isabella, who promised to provide the money. King Ferdi- 
nand had no share in the undertaking. 

His Hard Terms. — Columbus was to be admiral for 
life of all the islands and continents that he might discover. 
He was to have for himself one tenth of all pearls, diamonds, 
gold, silver, and a share in the profits on spices and other 



COLUMBUS AND THE NEW WORLD 287 

articles of trade. These were the hard terms that Columbus 
insisted on so stubbornly. He did not seek wealth merely 
for himself, but he had longed for many years to deliver 
Jerusalem from the Turks, and he meant to use every 
penny of his money in this cause. 

Difficulties Begin. — Columbus was deeply moved, and 
tears of joy came to his eyes, when he knew that after so 
many years of trial and disappointment he was to be per- 
mitted to risk his life in the greatest voyage ever attempted. 
When he reached the town of Palos, with orders from the 
queen for ships and men, there was almost a riot. No ship- 
owners were willing to furnish vessels for such a voyage on 
the " Sea of Darkness," nor had the sailors any desire to 
steer straight into the jaws of death. But the royal orders 
for ships and provisions must be obeyed, no matter what the 
groans and curses. 

Enlisting Sailors. — To get sailors was the hardest task. 
Criminals were released from jail on condition that they 
would promise to enlist with Columbus. At last seamen 
were simply forced to go, whether they wished to or not. 
They put every hindrance in the way of getting started. 
Those who were calking up the seams of the vessels to pre- 
vent leaks, did a careless job, so that it had to be done over 
again ; others deserted and hid themselves. 

Off to the West. — At last, after many troubles and diffi- 
culties, Columbus set sail from Palos on Friday, August 3, 
1492. How his heart must have leaped with joy, now that 
he was fairly started! He had under his command three 
small vessels with ninety sailors aboard. These hardy 
seamen bade their friends a last farewell in tears, as though 
they never expected to behold one another again. 

Headed for the Canaries. — The tiny fleet steered first 
for the Canary Islands. From there the course was to be 



288 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

due west to Japan. For his guide Columbus had the map, 
or chart, sent him years before by Toscanelli, upon which 
he had made some improvements. Hardly had Columbus 
left port, than he began to see signs of mischief among his 
dissatisfied crews. The rudder of one ship was soon broken, 
purposely he thought, so that the ship could not go on ; but 
a steering gear was made that would do until the Canaries 




Columbus's Fleet — Pinta, Nina, Santa ]\I.aria. 

were reached. While making repairs here, the sailors were 
frightened out of their wits by seeing a lofty mountain 
belching out flames and smoke. Columbus explained that 
it was merely a volcano, saying he had often seen such sights 
in Italy. 

Straight into the " Sea of Darkness." — After making a 
new rudder for the disabled ship and taking on wood and 
water, the prows were turned westward into the unknown 
ocean. Other great sea captains had sailed hundreds of 



COLUMBUS AND THE NEW WORLD 289 

miles along strange coasts ; but Columbus was steering 
straight into the trackless ocean, with no support but his 
own bold idea. 

Keeping Two Records. — As the Canaries sank from sight 
on the east, and only the vast stretch of ocean lay before, the 
sailors cried and sobbed hke children. Columbus knew 
that he would have trouble with them on his long voyage, 
so he kept two records of the distance traveled. One record 
was as nearly correct as he could judge from the bubbles 
and foam through which the vessel plowed. This record 
was for his own eye. Another record, a false one, was for 
his officers and crews. If he had sailed 120 miles in a day 
and night, he put down, perhaps, 108 miles. The weather 
was line and the voyage might have been a pleasant one, 
had not the sailors been looking all the time for monsters 
or for a boiling sea. 

The Compass Bewitched. — After many days Columbus 
noticed that the compass no longer pointed directly to the 
north star but bent to the left, and, with each day, it pointed 
a little farther from the pole star. Columbus was troubled 
about it, but said nothing. For a time he hid this truth 
from the eyes of his pilots. It finally became known, how- 
ever, and all were in deep alarm. Must they cease to trust 
the compass ? Was it a witch trying to lead them into some 
awful whirlpool ? What was there left now to guide them in 
this trackless ocean ? 

Faith in Columbus. — But they believed in the profound 
knowledge of Columbus, and he quieted their fears by telhng 
them that the compass was correct, but that the pole star 
had moved just as other stars do. This was not true, for the 
pole star is always over the north pole ; but it was the only 
explanation that Columbus could give. We now know that 
the compass points, not to the north pole, but to the mag- 



290 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

netic pole, which is a httle south of it on a peninsula of 
Canada. You will find it on the map. 

Another Scare. — Some days later the boats came upon 
a great sea of growing seaweeds and grasses. It was the 
Sargasso Sea, three times as large as France, where tangled 
seaweeds grow upon the surface of the water that is two 
miles deep. To the sailors, this looked like an endless green 
prairie. So long as there was a good breeze, Columbus's 
fleet plowed easily through it ; but when the winds calmed, ■ 
they could make Httle headway, and the crews were afraid 
of running aground. When their longest plummet Hne 
failed to touch bottom they took heart, and after some days 
they passed again into a clear sea. 

Doubting a Friend. — Sailors always take delight in a 
favorable breeze, but our heroes now found themselves 
hurried westward by a strong and steady wind which kept 
up for weeks. They began to wonder whether they could 
ever return against such winds. They had simply entered 
the belt of constant trade winds, but, for all they knew, 
they were being hurried along to some awful fate. The wind 
changed after a while, however, and they began to look for 
some other bugaboo. 

Plotting to Throw Columbus Overboard. — Now after 
many days and weeks of steady saihng, the crews began to 
be impatient at finding no land. So they gathered in groups 
to plot against Columbus. Should they throw him over- 
board some dark night and turn back, or should they put 
him in chains, and steer for home? Had it not been for 
some signs of land, Columbus would have failed through 
some of these dark plots. 

Signs of Land. — Every day now they saw something 
that might point to land near by. Often they saw birds, 
which they thought always roosted on land ; or perhaps it 



COLUMBUS AND THE NEW WORLD 291 

was a weed, believed to grow only in fresh water ; or a 
branch ; or the appearance of clouds hovering upon the hori- 
zon, which the sailors said was a sign of land. Once they 
saw a whale, and Columbus assured them that it was an 
indication that they were near shore. But always their 
hopes were dashed, for the following day brought only a vast 
expanse of the blue ocean. The men then became discour- 
aged and more than ever angry with Columbus, who, they 
said, was only a foreigner and a madman. 

"Land! Land!" — But soon more favorable signs 
appeared. Columbus promised a reward to the good pair 
of eyes that first saw land. Seamen often climbed into the 
rigging, straining their eyes to the west ; and frequently 
the cry of " Land! Land! " was heard, but the next morn- 
ing proved it all a dream. Again the crews clamored to go 
home. But Columbus could not be moved from his purpose 
by either prayers or threats. 

Other Signs. — One morning, at sunrise, a cannon was 
fired as a signal of discovery ; but the supposed land proved 
to be only a cloud on the horizon. Flocks of small field 
birds were now seen, also a heron, a pelican, and a duck; 
but again the next day brought only a boundless sea. The 
angry crews became threatening and dangerous. At last 
the signs were unmistakable. A thorn bush with berries 
on it floated by, and the men picked up a small board and a 
cane carved by a man's hand. Nobody could doubt these 
indications, and the spirits of the men rose high. 

All Eyes on the Horizon. — All day, ninety sailors were 
eagerly on the watch, and when nightfall came, Columbus 
took his station upon the cabin or high point of the vessel, 
keeping his eyes on the horizon. Not a seaman slept. 
About ten o'clock at night, Columbus saw a moving light. 
On they sailed. At two o'clock in the morning a gun an- 



292 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

nounced the discovery of land, and everybody could see the 
shore distinctly about five miles away. There was great 
joy and excitement on board the ships. The httle fleet took 
in sail, and the crew impatiently waited for daybreak. 

Landing Upon the New World. — When morning came, 
almost all the crew, with Columbus at the head, rowed to 




The Landixc. of Cohmius. 

land. It was the 12th of October, 1492, when they stepped 
upon the shores of the new world. " They threw themselves 
upon their knees, kissed the earth, and returned thanks to 
God with tears of joy." Then Columbus arose. He drew 
his sword, unfurled the flag of Spain, and declared the island 
to belong to the queen of Spain. So great was the rejoicing, 
that the officers embraced Columbus or kissed his hands, 
while the sailors threw themselves at his feet begging his 
forgiveness. 

Strange Inhabitants. — While this was going on, a multi- 
tude of savages appeared near by. The men, women, and 
children had copper-colored skin, and their naked bodies 



COLUMBUS AND THE NEW WORLD 



293 



were greased and painted. They looked with awe and 
astonishment upon the strange visitors who they beheved 
came down from the sky. They thought that the ships were 
monsters of the sea. Columbus believed that he had dis- 
covered an island of the East Indies. So he called the 
savages he saw here Indians. He was really upon one of 
the Bahama Islands in what was later called the West 
Indies. 

Making Friends. — At the first sight of the white-winged 
monsters the natives had fled in terror to the woods ; but 
they now cautiously returned, keeping for a while at a dis- 
tance. The Spaniards encouraged them with nods and 
smiles, as they came slowly up to the "white visitors from 
heaven " and touched them with their hands to make sure 
that they were real men and not ghosts. The Indians gladly 
gave up their gold ornaments and whatever else they had, 
for beads and other trinkets brought by the Spaniards. 

Where were the Spices and Gold ? — The Spaniards 
talked to the Indians by signs and asked for the golden cities 
of China and Japan, but the Indians merely pointed off in 
one direction or another. Columbus cruised about for ten 
days among the Bahamas, puzzled at not finding spices and 
drugs and great cities. But he felt sure that he was near 
Japan and China. He discovered Cuba and other large 
islands, always hoping that he had at last found Asia, but 
always disappointed. 

Left with One Ship. — One vessel, which was speedier 
than the others, now deserted Columbus. Pinzon, the 
commander, meant to return with it to Spain, and claim 
credit that was not his. On Christmas morning, Columbus's 
flagship struck a sandbank and was beaten to pieces by the 
waves, but not until the men and valuables on it had been 
saved. This left Columbus with only one ship. " What if 



294 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

something should happen to it! " thought he. Then Europe 
might never know of his discoveries. 

Planning to Return. — He decided to return at once to 
Spain and to plan a second voyage with a larger fleet. He 
could not carry back all the men upon his lone ship, so he 
built a blockhouse of parts of the wrecked vessel and placed 
the ship's cannon in it. Here he left forty of his men with a 
promise to return, and speedily set sail for Spain. A few 
days later they caught up with the deserting ship, whose 
commander made many lame excuses for desertion of 
Columbus. Together they now turned their prows straight 
toward Spain. 

Preparing for the Worst. — In mid ocean they met with a 
terrible storm. It seemed probable that both ships would 
be lost. They again became parted to take different courses. 
Fearing a watery grave, Columbus wrote two reports of 
his discoveries. These he covered with wax and wrapped in 
cloth. He then sealed each in a barrel, one of which he flung 
into the sea, while the other was left upon the deck to float 
away in case the ship went to the bottom. Columbus hoped 
that one of these barrels might one day be washed ashore, or 
be picked up by some ship ; and thus his discoveries might 
be made known. 

Driven Upon the Coast of Portugal. — Both ships, however, 
weathered this storm and made sail for Spain. But Colum- 
bus's ship, when nearing home, was caught in another storm 
and driven upon the coast of Portugal, where it was guided 
safely into the mouth of a river. Lisbon was wild with 
excitement at the news of Columbus's discovery. He set 
sail shortly after, and at noon on March 15, 1493, entered 
the harbor of Palos, having been gone more than seven 
months. 

Home Again. — As the news spread about, the whole 



COLUMBUS AND THE NEW WORLD 



295 



town gave itself up to rejoicing. There was scarcely a 
citizen who had not some relative with Columbus, and 
behold, they were not dead! Bells were rung, shops were 
closed, and people took a hoHday. Towards evening the 
other vessel, which was parted from Columbus in the storm 
in mid-ocean, sailed safely into the same harbor and the 
sailors joined in the general rejoicing with friends and 
relatives. 

Europe Aroused. — The great navigator was soon sum- 
moned to the court of Ferdinand and Isabella, where he was 
received with great honor. As he rode through the cities 
of Spain, he was greeted like a king. The joy over his dis- 
coveries was not confined to Spain. All Europe was aroused 
with wonder and admiration. In London, Paris, Lisbon, 
and Genoa the name of Columbus was hailed with enthusi- 
asm ; and everybody, including the great navigator, felt sure 
that Asia had been reached. When Columbus prepared 
for his second voyage, it was difficult to prevent people 
from embarking with him, so eager were they to obtain 
riches without effort. 

Later Voyages. — Columbus made four different voyages 
to the region of the Gulf of Mexico. On the third, in 1498, 
he touched the mainland of South America, near the mouth 
of the Orinoco River. But he failed to find the golden 
cities of the East, and all those who had taken part in the 
expeditions, hoping to become suddenly rich, met with 
only hardship, poverty, and disease. The blame for their 
troubles and failures they heaped upon Columbus. Once 
he was taken back to Spain in chains ; but the queen, to 
whom he wrote a touching letter, ordered him set free. 

Neglect and Death. — When the queen, his best friend, 
died, his enemies showed their spite. He lost all his 
honors and his offices. Da Gama had sailed around Africa 



296 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

to the Indies and returned with spices, rich silks, and wealth 
for his men ; while Columbus had brought back only misery. 
From this time on, Columbus was poor and neglected and 
broken in health. He died in 1506, and little notice was 
given the event. His body was first buried in Spain, but 
was later brought over and laid to rest in the New World. 

QUESTIONS 

I. Why was Genoa interested in new routes? 2. What was 
Columbus's early life ? 3. Why did he go to Portugal ? 4. Why 
was Lisbon the center of interest? 5. What did Columbus gain by 
his marriage? 6. Where did he and his wife settle? 7. Why 
were the people anxious for a western voyage ? 8. What was Colum- 
bus's plan? g. What encouragement did he get? 10. Describe 
Toscanelli's map. 11. What two mistakes did Columbus make in 
his reckonings? 12. Why were these fortunate? 13. What was 
the purpose of his voyage ? 14. Why did not Portugal help him ? 
15. Why did Columbus go to Spain? 16. What conditions did he 
find there? 17. What did the learned men of Spain think? 
18. Where did Columbus try to get aid ? 19. Who finally helped him ? 

20. What was Columbus to receive as pay for his discoveries ? 

21. What did he intend to do with his riches? 22. What kind of a crew 
had he? 23. What course did he take? 24. Tell about the super- 
stitions of the sailors. 25. What frightened them? 26. What 
signs of land led them on? 27. Describe the landing. 28. What 
kind of reception did they get ? 29. Where did Columbus land ? 
30. When? 31. Why didn't he take all his men back? 32. De- 
scribe the hardships of the homeward voyage, ^t,. How long did it 
take? 34. How did the people receive Columbus? 35. What did 
he think that he had discovered ? 36. How many trips did he make ? 
37. What became of Columbus? 38. What did he really do for the 
world ? 



CHAPTER XXIV 
RACE TO THE INDIES 

England Hastens to Share in Rich Trade. — When the 
news of the lirst voyage and return of Cokimbus reached 
England, there was deep disappointment because Sj)ain, 
and not England, had been the path l^reaker to the West. 
Everybody thought that Columbus had surely reached 
Asia, and they admired and praised him very much. There 
was in England at that time another Italian merchant and 
mariner named John Cabot. He applied to King Henry 
VII of England for aid to sail westward and share in the 
riches and honor of the trade with China and Japan. The 
king was glad to reap where he had not sown ; so in May, 
1497, the Cabots, John and his son Sebastian, sailed from 
Bristol with one ship and eighteen sailors. A few weeks 
later they discovered what they supposed to be the coast of 
China, but they probably landed on Newfoundland or 
Labrador. They did not see any Indians, though they 
found traces of them and reported that " the natives used 
needles for making nets, and snares for catching game." 

The Cabots' Return. — A little later the Cabots' vessel 
returned to Bristol, where John was received with much 
honor. We are told that the people called him the " Great 
Admiral and ran after him Hke mad ])eople." 

A Second Voyage. — The next year Sebastian Cabot 
sailed again to America with a larger fleet and coasted along 
our eastern shores for many hundreds of miles. Like Colum- 
bus, the Cabots believed that they had reached China, but 

297 



298 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

they failed to find the Spice Islands. Sebastian Cabot 
carried back three Indians, but no silks or spices. The 
voyages were a failure so far as bringing riches to those who 
bore the expense, and so the English did not follow up these 
discoveries. But a hundred years later when England 
came to demand a share of the New World, she claimed it 
because of Cabot's discoveries. 

Portuguese in Brazil. — During the time when Columbus 
was making voyages to the west, there was living in Spain 
still another Italian, named Americus Vespuccius, a native 
of Florence, whose interest in navigation and trade had led 
him to Spain. He took part in several voyages across the 
Atlantic, and on one of them he carried the flag of Portugal 
far southward along the coast of Brazil. 

The New Land. — Vespuccius was delighted with the 
balmy climate, the birds of brilliant plumage, and the dense 
forests of enormous trees. He visited many tribes of Indians, 
and in one place saw salted human flesh hanging up for 
food. He saw one cannibal who boasted that he, himself, 
had eaten three hundred men. Sometimes the Indians 
showed fight and shot arrows at the newcomers, but a 
few volleys of powder and lead sent them scurrying to the 
woods. 

Describing the New World. — Upon his return, Americus 
wrote letters that described this new land and told where 
it was situated. The geographers were puzzled, for they 
knew well that Asia did not extend so far south. They still 
beheved Columbus's discoveries to be Asia, but what new 
world was this that Americus had discovered south of the 
equator ? This voyage made a greater stir among scholars 
than those of Columbus. 

Naming the New Land. — About this time a famous 
geographer wrote a httle book in which he said that this new 



RACE TO THE INDIES 



299 



world of Brazil should be named America for its discoverer. 
Later the name America was given to all South America. 
After a while it was found that the lands north of the Gulf of 
Mexico were connected with Brazil, and the name America 
came to be applied to the entire western continent. So it 
was by mere accident that the New World was named 
America, and the honor that was due Columbus was given 




Vasco da Gama and the Zamorin. 



to another. No one meant to do injustice to the great 
navigator, for Columbus and Americus were friends. 

Vasco da Gama Successful. — In the year 1498, young 
Vasco da Gama started from Lisbon for the Cape of Good 
Hope, which Diaz had found ten years before. He turned 
the cape and gayly sailed his Httle fleet across the Indian 
Ocean and entered the harbor of Cahcut on the west coast 
of India. Two years after starting, he returned to Lisbon 
with nutmegs and cloves, pepper and ginger, rubies and 
emeralds, silk and satin cloths, and much silver and gold. 



300 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

He had seen splendid cities and had talked with great rulers. 
He had met many Arab vessels, whose crews looked upon 
a Christian ship with indignation because they thought 
that it had no right to sail the Indian Ocean. Thus Portugal 
had been first to find the all-water route to the Indies, and 
was reaping such a harvest of riches that other nations 
were eager to share in it. 

Groping About in the Dark. — Most of the shores of 
America, from the coast of Labrador to the southern part 

of South America, had at 
this time been seen by 
different European explor- 
ers, but the geographers 
were deeply puzzled. 
Startling facts were 
brought back from the 
New World much faster 
than they could be gath- 
ered together and ex- 
plained. Geographers 
were certain that South 
America was not Asia, 
and therefore must be a 
new world ; however, the 
land seen by the Cabots 
and Columbus was still believed to be China, or some land 
barrier near Asia. But where were the Spice Islands? 
Somewhere there might be a strait leading through America 
into the Indian Ocean, though no one had found it. A few 
men began to think of sailing around South America to 
China, for they believed that since Africa had an end, the 
New World might also have a limit, and, if so, one might 
sail by it to China. 




Magellax. 



RACE TO THE INDIES 301 

Magellan. — The bold sailor who meant to try this long 
and dangerous voyage was Ferdinand Magellan, a Portu- 
guese. He proposed the plan to the king of Portugal, but 
the king was unfriendly to him and turned a deaf ear to 
his offer. Then Magellan went to the young king of 
Spain and persuaded him to try the plan. 

Voyage Round the World. — In September, 1519, a 
Httle fleet of five vessels departed from the coast of Spain 
for Asia by way of South America. There were on board a 
mixed crew of two hundred and eighty sailors from various 
countries, and some of them were traitors to Magellan 
before they left Spain. They had not been at sea long when 
they were becalmed. So very quiet was the atmosphere 
that it took them three weeks to sail nine miles. Then 
the weather changed, and the rolling waves of a stormy 
sea lashed them for a month. Meanwhile their food and 
water grew scarce. 

Reaching America. — At last, after threats of mutiny 
among the crews, the little fleet touched the coast of 
Brazil. Shortly after they sailed into the mouth of the 
La Plata River, which they thought, at first sight, might be 
a strait into the Indian Ocean. They explored this stream 
for three hundred miles, but found that it became narrower 
and the water fresher. So they concluded that it was a 
river and returned to the sea. Their voyage down the coast 
was interrupted by storms, and as winter with its cold 
weather was approaching they went into winter quarters 
at Easter. In this southern land the winter months are 
the same as our summer months. 

A Mutiny. — Here the sailors mutinied, and three ships 
threatened to go back to Spain, for their journey had been 
full of hardships. The sailors said that they had already 
gone near enough to the south pole, and they felt that there 



302 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

was no such strait into the Indian Ocean as they had hoped 
to find. They declared that their commander, being a 
Portuguese, intended to pla}/ false to Spain, and so they 
meant to go back home. Who was to prevent? Three 
of the five ships were in their hands. But they did not 
know the man, Magellan. By a shrewd, bold move, he 
captured one of their ships ; and having now three to their 
two, he blockaded them, opened fire upon their ships, and 
soon brought them to his feet. All this Magellan did in 
one day. The leader of the mutiny was beheaded and all. 
others pardoned, after which there was no more disobedi- 
ence to Magellan. 

The Straits. — When the first signs of spring came, late 
in August, the ships went on their way southward, harassed 
by frequent storms. Late in October, they entered what 
some believed was a strait through to the western ocean. 
On both sides of the strait were high, snow-capped moun- 
tains. For more than five long weeks they wound their 
way through the maze of bays and narrow passages. They 
kept finding the water deep and salt and were sure that 
they had discovered the strait. One ship, however, de- 
serted and returned to Spain. 

Facing an Unknown Ocean. — At last they came out of 
this long, crooked strait, called later the Strait of Magellan, 
into an unknown, open sea. Tears of joy came to the eyes 
of the great captain. Many sailors begged to go back, 
now that the long-sought passage had been found, for 
their provisions were nearly gone ; but Magellan firmly 
said that he would go on, "if he had to eat the leather off 
the ship's yards." 

Sailing the Pacific. — The great sea upon which they 
now embarked was so calm and peaceful that Magellan 
named it the Pacific. It was as truly a Sea of Darkness 



RACE TO THE INDIES 303 

to Magellan as the Atlantic was to Columbus. No one 
knew how near or how distant was the coast of China, but 
they were already so far from Spain that now none dreamed 
of returning home the way they came. They must reach 
Asia, or perish in the attempt. Month after month they 
sailed on, with the blue sea beneath and the blue sky over- 
head. 

The Starving Crews. — At last they had sailed twice as 
far from the straits as had Columbus in 1492 from the 
Canaries, and they were yet thousands of miles from Asia. 
All their food was gone, except some putrid meats. Their 
supply of fresh water had turned yellow, and they were 
face to face with starvation. They were forced to eat 
skins and pieces of leather, which were found among the 
ropes and rigging of the ship. The skins were so dry and 
hard because of the hot sun and winds that they hung 
them by a cord into the sea for several days to soften them 
so that they could be eaten. Starvation and foul food 
brought on that dreaded disease of scurvy, and scores of 
poor sailors died, while many others were too sick and weak 
to move about. But the sea was calm, and they made good 
speed, or they would all certainly have died in mid-ocean. 
Some of the sailors began to think that perhaps the world 
was not round after all, and that they were saiHng to cer- 
tain death with no shore before them. But amid this 
awful suffering and misery, Magellan did not flinch. The 
sailors would have mutinied many times, but what could 
they do? If they deserted or killed Magellan, where could 
they go ? To turn back now meant death before land could 
be reached. So they sailed on, no one knew where. 

Land Ahead. — At last, with great joy, they came upon 
an island inhabited by savages, where they found plenty 
of fruit, fresh vegetables, and meat. It was one of the 



304 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 




RACE TO THE INDIES 305 

Ladrone Islands. A few weeks later they discovered a 
group of large islands, which they called Philippines after 
PhiKp II of Spain. Asia had been reached! 

The Death of Magellan. — Here they met traders from 
China and the Spice Islands. Now Magellan knew for 
a certainty that the world was round, and he had won 
glory and fame. While trying to spread Christianity 
upon these islands, the great navigator was killed ; but 
his fleet reached the Spice Islands. One of his ships sailed 
through the stormy Indian Ocean, passed the Cape of Good 
Hope, crept slowly up the west coast of Africa, crossed the 
equator, and on September 6, sailed into a home port. 

Home at Last. — Of the two hundred and eighty bold 
sailors who set out to sail around the world, only eighteen 
haggard, suffering men had Kved to reach home again. It 
was the greatest voyage ever undertaken, and its bold hero 
must be given the title of the Prince of Navigators. He 
not only proved the world to be round, but he showed 
clearly that the great continent of America was separated 
from Asia by an ocean thousands of miles wide. Europeans 
began slowly to realize that Columbus had discovered a 
grand new continent much nearer to Europe than it was 
to Asia. 

QUESTIONS 

I. For whom did the Cabots sail? 2. Where did they explore? 
3. Why did not other English sailors follow up the Cabots ? 4. How 
did America come to be so named ? 5. Tell about De Gama's voyage. 
6. Why were the people so puzzled about America ? 7. Describe 
Magellan's voyage. 8. Was he a greater man than Columbus? 
9. Why, or why not ? 



CHAPTER XXV 

THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA 

Short-cut to China. — ■ Two all-water routes to Asia and 
the Spice Islands had now been found, and either called 
for a long, long voyage for the slow-sailing vessels of those 
days. America was very much nearer to Europe than was 
Asia, and a race began for the possession of the riches of 
the New World. The explorers, one and all, however, hoped 
that in their search for gold in America they might find a 
short-cut through America to China. For a hundred years 
yet it was the dream of Spanish, French, and Enghsh 
navigators to find a strait through North America to the 
Pacific. The Potomac, the Hudson, the St. Lawrence, 
every large bay and river was at first looked upon as the 
long-sought passage through the continent, so eager were 
all to discover a shorter route than that by Good Hope or 
the Straits of Magellan. 

Spain Takes the Lead. — For several hundred years the 
knights and warriors of Spain had won glory and honor 
in the long wars against the Moors. Now the Moors were 
expelled, and the brave Spanish knights who had lost the 
habit of work must seek glory and adventure elsewhere. 
Every ship from the west brought home to Spain marvelous 
stories; and America became to these people a land of 
wonder and promise. Thus adventurers by the hundred 
were eager to spread their sails for the west ; and Spain 
quickly took the lead in the exploration and discovery of 
the New World. 

306 



THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA 



307 



Why They Came. — Some of the explorers came in the 
king's service ; others fitted out expeditions to roam over 
land and sea at their own expense. The chief reasons for 
their coming were a thirst for gold and a love of adventure ; 
but there was another object. For centuries Spain had 
been fighting for the cause of the church ; hence her people 
came to look upon 
themselves as the 
chief defenders of 
the cross, and to 
have much of the 
missionary spirit. 
There was a fine 
field in which to 
spread the faith 
among the children 
of the American 
forests; and so 
these rough and 
wicked explorers, 
amidst their search 
for gold, tried to 
convert the red 
men to Christian- 
ity. 

The First Settlements. — Settlements were first made 
upon the islands of the West Indies. With these as a base 
of supplies, the daring explorers pushed boldly on to the 
mainland, and before long, large portions of South Amer- 
ica, Mexico, and the United States were overrun by these 
searchers for gold. 

Cortes. — - Among the men who helped to fasten the 
Spanish grip upon America was Hernando Cortes. He 




CORTEZ. 



3o8 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

belonged to a noble Spanish family, who had lost its wealth 
ajid position. When he grew to manhood, young Cortes 
resolved upon a Ufe of adventure in America, where he 
hoped to find riches enough to restore his family to its old 
position of influence and power. He practiced horseman- 
ship and the use of arms, and at last he attracted attention. 

On to Mexico. — Soon we find Cortes in Cuba, whose 
governor sent him to conquer and settle Mexico. He set 
out from Cuba (1518) with ten vessels, six hundred soldiers, 
eighteen horsemen, and some pieces of cannon. In due 
time he landed safely upon the mainland of Mexico. The 
noise of his cannon, the appearance of horses and warships, 
all of which were new to the Indians, spread terror among 
them. They looked upon the Spaniards as gods, and 
quickly sent them many rich presents. 

Montezuma. — Cortes learned of the great Indian king, 
Montezuma, who reigned over a vast empire. Monte- 
zuma's riches were untold, and his word was law throughout 
the vast country of Mexico. Cortes first founded the city 
of Vera Cruz as a base for supplies ; and then burning his 
ships, so that his soldiers would know that they must win 
or perish, he set out to conquer the great Indian king. 
Although Cortes had but a handful of soldiers, a horse and 
a gun were so terrible to the natives that he had a great 
advantage. , With some tribes, who were hostile to Monte- 
zuma, Cortes made friends ; and many natives joined his 
army. Other tribes he put to flight with his horsemen and 
cannon. 

Approaching a Great City. — At last, with six thousand 
natives and a few hundred Spaniards at his back, Cortes 
came in sight of a lake in the midst of which was built the 
city of Mexico, Montezuma's beautiful capital. Monte- 
zuma received Cortes with great pomp; and his milhons 



THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA 309 

of subjects, who believed the strange white king to be a 
descendant of the sun, cast themselves upon the ground 
before him. But later, when the Indians saw the head of 
another Spaniard — -an enemy who had just landed at Vera 
Cruz — sent to Cortes, they no longer believed the Spaniards 
to be immortal. Noting how few there were of the white 
men, and having by now less fear of their horses, the 
Indians were ready to fight to be rid of their enemies. 

Seizing the Indian King. — But Cortes fortified himself 
in one of the palaces, seized Montezuma, and put him in 
irons. He burned several Indian warriors before the gates 
of the palace, and succeeded in awing the swarming red men 
for a time. Though Montezuma gave them a vast amount 
of pure gold and an untold quantity of precious stones to 
purchase his freedom, the Spaniards continued to hold him 
a prisoner. 

Warring Against Great Odds. — Fighting broke out many 
times ; and it seemed as though Cortes and his little band 
of Spaniards were about to fall into the hands of the howl- 
ing savages, who outnumbered them five hundred to one. 
But a few slight victories gave the Indians too much con- 
fidence, for they risked an engagement upon an open plain. 
This was just the chance Cortes desired. He gave the 
signal for battle ; and his well- trained troops, with good 
arms and cannon, won a great victory. This broke the 
spirit of the Indians, and Mexico was conquered and made 
a Spanish province (1520). Mines were discovered, and 
much gold and silver were carried to Spain. This caused 
a wild scramble for the riches of America. 

Balboa on the Isthmus. — After the Spaniards had 
explored and made settlements upon the Isthmus of 
Darien (now Panama), the government was placed in the 
hands of a noble named Balboa. In liis journeys among 



3IO DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

the Indian tribes on the isthmus, Balboa received from an 
Indian chief a present of a large amount pf gold. When 
they attempted to divide it, the greedy Spaniards fell to 
quarreling. 

News of a Golden Land. — The eldest son of the chief 
was surprised at their greed : *' What is this, Christians? " 
said he. "Is it for such a Httle thing that you quarrel? 
If you have such a love of gold, I will show you a country 
where you may have all you want. But you must have a 
large army, for you will have to fight your way with great 
kings " ; and the Indian pointed southward toward a sea 
which would carry them to the golden kingdom where, he 
said, the people had so much of the yellow metal that they 
ate and drank out of golden vessels. 

A White Man Sees the Pacific. — Balboa resolved to be 
the discoverer of that sea to which the Indian pointed. So 
he set out to cross the isthmus. After a toilsome march, 
Balboa's company approached the top of the mountain 
range from which the Indians had said that he might be- 
hold the other sea. Wishing to be alone, Balboa bade his 
men sit down while he went on. When he had reached the 
summit, he looked out upon the vast Pacific Ocean, which 
occupies more than one-half the surface of the earth. 
Balboa descended to the coast and waded into the surf. 
Then he drew his sword and took possession of this unknown 
sea for the Spanish king (15 13). From the Indians here, 
he received a great amount of gold and two hundred and 
forty large pearls. Among the Spanish soldiers there was 
a wild hunt for more treasures. 

Pizarro. — With Balboa was a soldier named Pizarro, 
who was much interested in what he heard of the golden 
kingdom far away to the southward. Pizarro saw no 
chance for himself as long as Balboa held the leadership of 



THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA 



311 



the expedition ; so he became jealous and joined the leader's 
enemies, who hatched a plot and promptly put the noble 
Balboa to death. 

Bound for Peru. — Some years later Pizarro sailed down 
along the west coast of South America beyond the equator, 
until he came near the country of the Incas, the land of 




Balboa Sighting the Pacific. 



gold. Pizarro saw enough to convince him that they were 
indeed very near the golden kingdom, for they picked up 
rich articles in trade. Here they first saw llamas. They 
also traded for beautiful vases of gold and silver, and gar- 
ments of fine wool. Having but a small party, Pizarro 
returned to Panama and hastened to Spain, where he ob- 
tained the right to conquer and rule such new lands as he 
might discover. With a much stronger army, he again, 
crossed the isthmus and sailed for Peru. 



312 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

First News of the White Men. — The Inca chief heard 
with dread of the coming of the bearded, white strangers. 
They thought that the Spanish horses were unearthly 
monsters, and that the hghtning and thunderbolts of their 
guns were great and awful mysteries. 

The Indian of Peru. — After a long march, Pizarro 
found the capital of the Incas. The city contained many 
thousands of people, who Hved chiefly in houses of adobe 
brick with thatched roofs. These Indians were well ad- 
vanced toward civilization. They wore cotton cloth and 
used weapons pointed with copper and bronze. 

The Golden Kingdom. — All the utensils of the palace and 
those in the temples of the Incas were of gold. Outside the 
temple was a garden of artificial plants with the leaves, 
fruit, and stalks of pure gold. The buildings were large 
and stately. The palace had terraced gardens, baths, and 
fountains. The Indians were skilled in agriculture. Dry 
waste lands were irrigated, and the mountain sides were 
terraced, sometimes a hundred terraces deep, for the pur- 
poses of farming. They had built up a splendid system of 
level, well-paved roads, on which travel was easy and speedy. 
The Inca chief often ate fresh fish that had been caught 
a day or so before in the Pacific, three hundred miles away. 
Vast flocks of llamas and alpacas supphed meat for food, 
and wool for fine cloth. In many ways these Indians had 
reached a higher civiHzation than had those who were now 
about to conquer them. 

The Inca in Prison. — The Inca looked upon the visitors 
as sky-gods, and received them most pohtely. However, 
when the Spaniards saw the many thousands of red men, 
they realized that their safety lay in frightening the natives. 
They followed the example of Cortes in Mexico by seizing 
and imprisoning the Inca. 



THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA 313 

Buying His Freedom. — The chief was placed in a room 
about the size of a schoohoom. The frightened Indian 
made a mark on the wall as high as he could reach, and 
offered to fill the room to that mark with gold if they would 
set him free. Pizarro accepted the offer, and, it is said, 
gold was collected to the amount of $15,000,000. There 
were, besides, great treasures of silver. All this wealth 
was divided among the Spaniards. 

Inca's Death. — The swarms of Indians became so 
unfriendly that Pizarro felt that he must do something to 
frighten them or they would overwhelm the Spaniards. 
So he led Inca out into a public place, after having taken 
all the gold that he had gathered, and killed him before 
the eyes of his people. 

Peru Conquered. — Before the Indians had their revenge, 
more Spaniards came. They now numbered live hundred 
men. Very shortly they routed the red men and brought 
them to their kne^s. Thus Peru, the land of the Incas, 
was conquered and added to the domains of Spain. When 
Pizarro landed in Europe with his load of riches, there 
was the wildest excitement. Again the Spaniards began 
flocking to America in search of gold. 

Ponce de Leon. — One of the first explorers to push into 
the wilderness of what is now the United States was a 
Spaniard named Ponce de Leon, who had been with Colum- 
bus on his second voyage. Ponce de Leon, now an old 
man, had often heard of the fountain of youth. Those 
who drank at this fountain were said to be cured of all 
disease and to become young again. 

Searching for the Fountain of Youth. — From the Indians 
in Cuba, De Leon learned that this fountain was to be found 
somewhere to the northwest. So he obtained permission 
from King Ferdinand to search it out. He touched the 



314 



DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



mainland near what is now St. Augustine, on Easter 
Sunday (15 13). De Leon was charmed with the beautiful 
foHage and the many bright flowers. It was because of 
this that he named the new land Florida, which, in Spanish, 
means the land of flowers. 

Attempt to Settle Florida. — De Leon coasted around the 
peninsula of Florida, but on account of trouble with the 
Indians, he returned to Cuba. He came to Florida a few 
years later with settlers for a colony. This time the 
Indians attacked him with great fury. Instead of finding 
the fountain of youth, De Leon was wounded by an Indian 
arrow and went back to Cuba to die. 

De Soto. — Among the followers of Pizarro, who shared 
in the rich plunder of the Incas, was one named Ferdinand 
De Soto. De Soto returned to Spain with immense wealth 
and lived like a king, until he spent the most of his riches. 
Then he decided to find another golden kingdom and again 
to line his pockets with its spoil. 

In Florida. — Hearing of Florida, he secured permission 
to explore and conquer this land of flowers. With about 
five hundred men and half as many horses, De Soto landed 
at Tampa Bay. He was immediately set upon by swarms 
of howling Indians, who drove the Spaniards to their 
ships. But De Soto bravely put his men ashore again in 
order of battle and began his long, long march in search 
of new treasures. 

The Indians Unfriendly. — The Indians had been so 
horribly abused by other explorers that De Soto could not 
win their friendship, although he sent many presents to 
their chiefs. One old chief sent this reply to his offers of 
peace : " Others of your accursed race, in years past, have 
poisoned our shores. They have taught me what you are. 
What is your employment? To wander about like vaga- 



THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA 



315 



bonds from land to land ; to rob the poor, to murder the 
weak? With such people I want no friendship. War 
never ending, war to the death is all I ask." 

Endless Wandering. — The Spaniards continued their 
mad search for gold. Suns rose and set ; weeks and months 
passed by ; and all the while the Spanish army was wander- 
ing about in the deep wilderness, often through swamps and 




De Soto's Discovery of the Mississippi. 

marshes. They got their food from the Indian cornfields, 
and from the herds of hogs that they drove with them. 

Indian Fighting. — They passed through Florida and 
Alabama, sometimes fighting all-day battles with the fierce 
red men. In one great Indian battle De Soto lost one 
hundred and seventy men. Though this was a small 
number compared with the Indians who fell, the Spanish 
leader could not afford many such victories. Two years 



3i6 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

of aimless wandering had passed, and De Soto was sad 
and weary ; but he was too proud to give up and go home 
a poor man. 

The Mississippi. — In 1541, De Soto came upon a great 
river more than a mile wide. It was the Mississippi. 
For countless ages the majestic stream had flowed on, 
unknown to civilized man. But De Soto cared not for the 
glory of discovering a new river ; he was in search of gold, 
and gold, alone, would satisfy him and his greedy followers. 

Exploring the West. — They crossed the great Mississippi 
and spent a year searching through the present states of 
Arkansas and Missouri. In this year of hardship and suffer- 
ing, many of the men died of disease or in battle with the 
red men. 

De Soto's Death. — And now De Soto was worn out. He 
returned to the banks of the Mississippi, where he soon 
fell ill of a fever and died. In order that the prowling 
Indians might not know of the death of their great leader, 
the Spaniards buried him at dead of night in the bosom of 
the wonderful river that he had discovered. De Soto's 
followers then built rude ships, floated down the river to 
the gulf, and arrived, at last, at a Spanish colony in Mexico. 

Menendez in Florida. — A Spaniard, named Pedro 
Menendez, was bent upon founding a colony in Florida, 
and Philip II gave his permission. With a fine fleet of 
thirty-four vessels and more than two thousand persons 
in his company, Menendez spread his sails for the sunny 
land. Hearing of a colony of French Protestants who had 
already settled in Florida, Menendez vowed that he would 
hang every Frenchman he found there ; first, because they 
were on the domains of Spain, and next, because they were 
heretics who had broken away from the CathoHc faith. 
He kept his pledge, and the band of Frenchmen were slain. 



THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA 



317 



St. Augustine. — Menendez founded the first permanent 
European settlement within the present boundary of the 
United States at St. Augustine in 1565. It then appeared 
as though Spain were to get a grip upon the fairest portions 




St. Augustine, Florida. 

of North America. However, Europe was at this time torn 

asunder with religious wars, and we must notice how this 

contest affected Spain's hold upon what is now the United 

States. 

QUESTIONS 

I. Why did Spain take the lead in exploring? 2. Why did she 
send men to America? 3. Where did Cortes explore? 4. What 
city did he found? 5. What did he do in America? 6. What did 
Spain claim because of his work? 7. Tell about Balboa's work. 
8. What civilization did Pizarro find ? 9. How do you account for 
it? 10. How did he conquer Peru? 11. What do you think of 
Pizarro? 12. What Spanish navigators have we already . studied ? 
13. Review the work of each. 14. For what was Ponce de Leon 
hunting? 15. Where did he explore? 16. Who was De Soto? 
17. For what was he looking ? 18. How did the Indians feel toward 
him ? 19. Where did he travel ? 20. Who made the first settle- 
ment in America? 21. Where? 22. Because of her explorations, 
how much and what part of America did Spain claim? 



CHAPTER XXVI 
RISE OF THE PROTESTANTS 

The Roman Church Rules Itself. — As long as the Roman 
empire held together, the emperor's word was law through- 
out his wide realm. The emperors often insisted upon 
their right to make the laws of the church, as well. But 
after the empire had gone to pieces, the Cathohc Church 
was free to make its own laws and to rule itself. 

The Pope an Absolute Ruler. — The church patterned 
its government after that of the state, especially in the 
point of having one chief ruler, who Hved at Rome and who 
was called the pope. When churches or clergymen dis- 
agreed as to what were the correct forms of worship, they 
referred the dispute to the pope, whose decisions came to 
be accepted everywhere. If priests and bishops differed 
about the meaning of any particular passage of the Bible, 
they asked the pope's opinion. In this way the popes came 
to be absolute rulers in the church, just as the emperors had 
been in the empire. 

The Pope Infallible. — At first the decision of the pope 
was sometimes disputed, and the clergy wasted their time 
in wrangling about it. So the church came at last to teach 
that the pope was infallible ; that is, that he could not 
make a mistake — and that to differ from his decision was 
a terrible sin. This put an end to all differences of opinion 
on questions of reHgion. Thus the pope ruled with a free 
hand ; and the church, with its faithful and obedient clergy 
in every land, came to be a powerful institution. 

318 



RISE OF THE PROTESTANTS 



319 



The Pope as King of Kings. — Because the governments 
were weak, and the pope was strong, he gradually took a 
hand in trying to keep order and in protecting the helpless 
against the powerful. So his influence grew outside the 
church. After Charlemagne was crowned emperor by the 
pope at Rome, other kings consented to allow the pope to 
share in the coronation. In time it was claimed that no 




The Vatican, the Pope's Palace, Rome. 



ruler was lawfully in power unless he had been crowned by 
the head of the church. Sometimes two or more rivals 
sought the throne, and the decision between them fell to 
the pope. At last the pope claimed the right to choose the 
king in every country in Europe. Moreover he expected 
obedience from all these crowned heads. Many kings, 
however, would not admit the pope's power over them ; so 
for hundreds of years there was strife, and often war, between 
the kings and the head of the church. 

Riches Weaken the Church. — For many centuries the 
church was ruled by popes of noble character, assisted by 
faithful bishops ; and during that time, it was of immeasur- 
able service to mankind. But finally the church became 



320 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

very rich in much the same manner as the monasteries had 
done. Vast territories were held and ruled by the pope 
as though by a king, and the duty of governing them took 
much of his time and energy. And so he was forced to 
give less and less attention to the true duties of the 
church. The clergy neglected to carry out the example 
and teachings of Jesus. They lived lives of ease and 
luxury. Many became selfish, lazy, and corrupt. When 
a pope died, there were numerous candidates for his 
position of power and honor, and unworthy men were 
sometimes chosen as head of the church ; other important 
church offices, such as that of bishop and archbishop, were 
obtained by worldly men, and soon a large part of the 
priesthood became selfish and neglected the work of teach- 
ing and leading men to a higher Ufe. Some bought their 
places, Hved base lives, and brought disgrace upon the 
name of Christ. 

A Noble Reformer. — Then there came to the papal chair 
one of the noblest men of the Dark Ages, Pope Sylvester. 
He loved learning, and tried to awaken the thirst for knowl- 
edge that was asleep. Everywhere men were ignorant and 
superstitious. Sylvester also tried to reform the church, 
to put godly men in the places held by the unworthy and the 
selfish. His life was one long struggle against wickedness, 
and he died after ruling the church only a few years. The 
time had been too short to root out all the wickedness that 
had crept in. 

New Learning in Italy. — After the Crusades, the Italian 
towns became immensely rich through the trade with the 
East. Men now had money, and with money came leisure 
— time to read and to think. The people of means not only 
wished to see more of the world, but they were eager to know 
what was written in books. 



/ 

RISE OF THE PROTESTANTS 



321 



Petrarch. — The most famous scholar of the time was an 
Italian poet named Petrarch. In his youth he wanted to 
read Greek and Latin manuscripts and to know all that the 
old Romans and Greeks had known. Petrarch's father, 
however, wished his son to become a lawyer ; and when the 
boy spent his money 
on Greek and Latin 
books, the father 
threw them into the 
fire. But when he 
saw the deep grief of 
his son, he snatched 
the books out again. 
So Petrarch was per- 
mitted to study the 
dusty books of the 
Greek and Latin au- 
thors. He soon be- 
came a famous poet 
and scholar, and col- 
lected many old 
books, or manu- 
scripts. 

Petrarch a Teacher. 
— He showed people 
how to read these old 
writings, and how to 
compare them with one another to see whether some of them 
were copied from others, or whether all of them were copied 
from old books that had decayed or been lost. Thus 
scholars came to be fine judges of the writings of the old 
Romans and Greeks, and could pick out the mistakes and 
errors that had crept in through the different slaves and 




Petrarch. 



32 2 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

monks who had written out these parchment books. 
Petrarch became famous among scholars, princes, and other 
great men. He was a tireless worker, and even old age could 
not check his study. One morning at the ripe age of 
seventy he was found dead in his library. 

Learning Awakes. — Petrarch had started a great move- 
ment, which we call the Revival of Learning ; for, as you 
know, learning had slept for ages. Petrarch had many 
followers, and they continued to search the monasteries and 
churches of Italy for the long-lost books of the old authors. 
They found old Latin books and learned to read them. 
Many became fine Latin scholars. The enthusiasm for 
this learning spread over Italy and to other countries of 
western Europe. 

Greek Learning Saved. — When the Turks were about 
to capture Constantinople, scores of learned men of that 
city took ship for Italy, bringing with them a knowledge 
of the Greek language and many rare old books written in 
that tongue. There had been Greek scholars in Italy be- 
fore this time, but now came many more, with treasures of 
writings of the old authors of Athens. They received a 
hearty welcome in Italy. Students began to read the Greek 
manuscripts eagerly, and they urged their friends to do the 
same. Gradually a knowledge of Greek literature and a 
love for it spread over Europe. " I have given up my whole 
soul to Greek learning," said Erasmus, " and as soon as I 
get more money I shall buy Greek books — and then I 
shall buy some clothes." 

Studying the Bible. — The light of this new learning 
and study was turned upon the silly superstitions of that 
ignorant time. It was also turned upon the church and 
the Bible. It was found that the Bible in the Greek lan- 
guage and the same book in Latin did not read exactly 



RISE OF THE PROTESTANTS 



2,^Z 



alike, and that mistakes had been made in translating the 
Bible from Greek into Latin. This the pope denied. He 
was furious that any one should doubt a word of the Latin 
Bible. But learned men in many lands were beginning to 
doubt the correctness of many passages of the Latin Bible, 
and to point out what they thought were evils in the church 
and among the clergy. 

The Inquisition. — The Roman Catholic Church resolved 
to persecute these doubters, for the popes believed that 
unless something was done to prevent the spread of such 
teachings, the church would lose its influence and go to 
pieces. So the Inquisition was decided upon. The pope 
sent men, called inquisitors, to search out the doubters, 
whom they called heretics. The heretics were commanded 
to give up these new ideas or be burned at the stake. 
Tens of thousands of jioble and innocent people were tor- 
tured to death in this horrible manner. 

Block Books. — Some years before the time of Columbus 
the printing press had been invented (1438). Books now 
became cheap. The old methods of making books by copy- 
ing with pen and ink was slow and tiresome. The use of 
parchment, or sheepskin, instead of paper, made books 
very costly, and few people could afford to own one. A 
way was then invented to print a whole page at once. The 
printer took a block of wood or a board the size of the page 
he wished to make, and on it he drew the outHne of the 
letters of all the words on the page. Then with slow and 
toilsome care he cut away the wood, leaving the letters 
raised. By inking this and pressing it upon the paper, an 
entire page was printed at once. Such books were called 
block books ; and while they were cheaper than the manu- 
script books, it was still a costly process to print them, for 
it was slow work to cut a block for each page. Moreover, 



324 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



these expensive blocks were useless except for this par- 
ticular book, and it seemed a great waste of time and labor 
to throw them away. 

John Gutenberg. — About this time a printer named 
John Gutenberg, who Hved in Germany, began to dream of 
a better method. At last the idea came to him of cutting 
each letter from a separate piece of wood and then binding 

these letter blocks 
together to form 
a page. These 
page forms might 
be broken up and 
used again and 
again, for difTer- 
ent pages or books 
until they were 
worn out. Mak- 
ing movable type 
was a great in- 
vention, but it 
was still a hard 
task to print a 
book. Gutenberg 
learned to mold 
his type of metal, for the wooden letter blocks soon wore out. 
Then he crowned his great work by making a printing press. 
New Religious Sects. — Printing presses were soon in 
demand in every country of Europe. They could not be 
set up fast enough. Everybody could now afford to own a 
few books. The Bible was quickly translated into German, 
English, and other languages, and the common people began 
to read it. This greatly hastened the spread of the new 
learning, and set people to thinking for themselves about 




Gutenberg's Press. 



RISE OF THE PROTESTANTS 



325 



the Bible. The more they thought, the more differences of 
opinion there were about religious things. Thus there 
arose many different sects. 

Martin Luther. — The man who declared war on the 
Catholic Church and became the leader of this new reli- 




Martin Luther. 



gious movement was Martin Luther, a German professor. 
Lyther had made a sacred pilgrimage to Rome. While 
there, he heard stories about the pope and many of the 
higher clergy that displeased him very much. Luther did 



326 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

not want to quarrel with the pope, but he beHeved that 
evils had crept into the church, and he wished to drive out 
this wickedness as Pope Sylvester had tried so hard to do 
many years before. 

Breaking Away from the Church. — When, a few years 
later, Luther wrote some of his beliefs in Latin and posted 
them upon the door of his church, as was the custom, 
everybody began to talk about them. They were trans- 
lated into German and spread broadcast. The pope 
threatened to punish Luther for heresy ; but strong friends 
came to Luther's side and protected him from both the 
king and the pope. 

The Protestants. — Nothing could stop the spread of 
Luther's beliefs. His followers, because they made a pro- 
test, were called Protestants. They sprang up all over 
western Europe. Preachers went from town to town and 
from country to country, spreading the new teachings. 
Germany, England, and other northern countries broke 
away from the Catholic Church and formed new reUgious 
sects, for the Protestants could not agree among themselves 
on religious questions. Large numbers of Protestants were 
found in France and the Netherlands. But there was one 
country, above all others, that was loyal to the pope and 
to the mother church, and that country was Spain. 

Purifying the Roman Church. — After the Protestant 
nations of the north had broken away from the mother 
church, Europe became divided into two hostile camps, 
and long religious wars followed. The nobler and better 
people among the Catholics sought to purify their church, 
to drive out selfishness and wickedness, so that they might 
face their enemies with a clear conscience and a united en- 
thusiasm. Thus there arose in the Roman church several 
orders whose purpose was to bring back the purity, the noble 



RISE OF THE PROTESTANTS 327 

devotion, and the virtue of former days. The most im- 
portant of these was the " Order of Jesus," or the Jesuits. 

The Founder of the Jesuits. — The founder of this 
noble order was Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish knight. He had 
been crippled in battle by a cannon ball, and during his 
long illness, he read the lives and stories of the saints. 
These had a marvelous influence on his mind. He gave up 
his dreams of military glory and dedicated his life to the 
church of Rome. The Jesuits were a devoted body of 
noble and unselfish men, who proved a great aid to the 
Catholic Church in this trying time of bitter wars. They 
denied themselves all ties of home, family, and friendship. 
Nothing was permitted to come between them and their 
service for the church. The Jesuits did not shut themselves 
away from the world about them to fast and pray for their 
own souls, as did the early monks, but they gave themselves 
in glorious service to their fellow-men. Nothing was too 
high nor too low for their noble endeavors. They were 
preachers and confessors, they were politicians, they were 
advisers of kings. As missionaries the Jesuits endured the 
hardships of a lonely life in the far-off corners of the world 
in order to teach and to lead the savages into the Christian 
faith. One of the greatest services to their time was 
the founding of the Jesuit schools, which were the best in 
Europe. But above all the Jesuits helped to bring back 
purity, unselfishness, and godliness to the Catholic Church. 

QUESTIONS 

I. How did riches weaken the church ? 2. Who was Pope Syl- 
vester and what noble thing did he try to do ? 3. Why was desire to 
learn stronger in Italy than elsewhere ? 4. Tell about Petrarch's 
life. 5. What movements did he set going? 6. How was the knowl- 
edge of the Greeks saved ? 7. Who were heretics ? 8. Why did the 



328 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

church persecute them ? 9. Were not the early Protestant churches 
guilty of persecution also ? See later chapter on Holland. 
10. What were Block books? 11. Tell about the invention of the 
printing press. 12. Can you think of other inventions that have meant 
more to the world ? 13. Give reasons for your beliefs. 14. What 
caused the split in the Catholic Church? 15. Who led in this 
movement? 16. Who were the Jesuits and what noble work did 
they do ? 



CHAPTER XXVII 



THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 

Philip Defends the Roman Church. — The crown of Spain 
fell, in 1555, to Philip II. He also received from his father 
the Netherlands. Now Philip was a zealous Catholic. He 
thought it was 
his religious 
duty to burn 
every heretic in 
his dominion or 
to force them 
all back into 
the Catholic 
Church, and he 
started to do it. 
The Spanish had 
fought many 
years to uphold 
the faith and to 
expel the infidel 
Moors. They 
were in no mood 
to allow any one 
to criticize or 
break away from 
the faith for which they had sacrificed so much in treasure 
and in blood. 

Stamping Out Heresy in the Netherlands. — Philip vowed 
he would stamp out all Protestantism from his domains, 

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Philip II of Spain. 



330 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

and at once ordered the governor of the Netherlands to 
burn or kill all who refused to accept the Catholic form of 
worship. Many great nobles and hundreds of the leading 
citizens of the Netherlands were true Catholics. Never- 
theless they objected to this wholesale hanging and burn- 
ing of their neighbors because of religious belief. 

Too Much Freedom. — Philip saw that he was likely to 
have trouble in making the people of the Netherlands obey 
his cruel orders against the Protestants. The towns and 
provinces of that country had long had charters of liberty, 
and the nobles spoke out boldly against this tyrannical 
order. So Philip concluded that the first thing to do was 
to take away their liberties. 

Would Become an Absolute Ruler. — He planned to 
capture all the stout-hearted patriots and liberty-loving 
nobles, many of whom were loyal Catholics, and upon one 
excuse or another to put them to death. In this way he 
hoped to frighten all the common people and force them to 
submit to his absolute rule. After that it would be easy 
to root out Protestantism. 

The Beggars. — One of the king's officers in the Nether- 
lands called the Protestants " Beggars " ; and they gladly 
adopted the name, crying, '' Long five the Beggars ! " 
One of their leaders soon appeared in public dressed as a 
beggar ; and from this time, the Netherland Protestants 
wore the beggar's costume of coarse, gray cloth, with a 
wallet and wooden bowl as emblems of their beggarhood. 

The Beggars Striking Back. — On several occasions, 
mobs of Protestants broke into Catholic churches, wrecked 
the altars, smashed the images to pieces, and destroyed all 
objects of art and beauty that fell in their way. They were 
just as ready to persecute the Catholics in their turn ; for 
at this time, no one beheved that more than one religion 



THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 



331 



could exist in the same land. Every one felt that his belief 
was the only right religion, and that it was his duty to per- 
secute all other faiths. 

" It shall Cost Them Dear." — When the king heard of 
these outrages, he broke out in anger, " It shall cost them 
dear, I swear it by the soul of my father." He now sent a 
new governor, the 
Duke of Alva, with 
a great army to 
carry out his 
wicked designs in 
the Netherlands. 
The Duke of Alva 
was one of the 
greatest generals 
of Europe. He 
was stony-hearted 
and merciless. He 
believed, with 
Philip, that all 
heretics should be 
put to death, and 
was glad of the 
chance to butcher 
the Beggars. 

The Duke of Alva's Plot. — "I have tamed men of iron 
in my day," said Alva, as he set out ; ''I shall know how to 
deal with these men of butter." Everybody who stood for 
the hberties of his land, CathoHc or Protestant, Alva was 
charged to put to death upon one excuse or another. Alva 
was kindly received by the great nobles of the Netherlands ; 
and he hid his wicked intentions beneath many smiles, 
while he contrived a plan to capture all the leading patriots 




DuKit OF Alva. 



332 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

at one time. He arranged a brilliant festival in the most 
friendly way, and invited all the leaders to the capital. 
Most of them came. His ofl&cers had their orders to arrest 
their men at a given signal. Thus the bravest leaders 
of the Netherlands, some of whom had fought for King 
Philip on many battlefields, were taken unawares and 
landed in prison. 

The Council of Blood. — Alva quickly made up a court of 
heartless men to try these nobles, either as traitors or here- 
tics. He called this new body the Council of Troubles ; but 
people have since named it the Council of Blood. "Whole 
batches of the accused were condemned together, offhand ; 
and from one end of the Netherlands to the other the exe- 
cutioners were busy with stake, sword, and gibbet until 
the whole land ran red with blood." 

Hatred for the Spaniard. — On an Ash Wednesday, when 
the people were at home, fifteen hundred patriots were ar- 
rested; and Alva wrote to Philip, saying, "I have ordered 
them all executed." Many loyal Cathohcs objected to this 
wholesale slaughter, but nothing could move Philip or the 
blood-thirsty Alva. This atrocious burning and killing of 
good men for no crime but a love of liberty, or a desire to 
worship as they believed right, aroused undying hatred 
against the Spaniards. 

William, Prince of Orange. — Among the unhappy 
Netherlanders was a patriot, Prince Wilham of Orange, 
whom Alva, with all his cunning, could not catch, although 
he laid many traps. He invited the prince to feasts, he 
offered him bribes, he hired assassins to slay him ; but 
Wilham of Orange was a wary man, and the cruel Alva 
tried in vain to capture him. William was so careful in 
what he said, that people began to call him William the 
Silent. 



THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 



333 



William, the First to Believe in Religious Freedom. — 
Prince William was the leader and defender of his people 
at this hopeless time. He believed that no man, not ex- 
cepting the pope, had a right to punish others for beheving 
and worshiping as they pleased. The prince encouraged his 
people to fight ; he raised money ; he raised armies ; he 
made friends in 
other countries, in 
France, Germany, 
and England, who 
were willing to send 
aid. 

Crushing the 
Patriot Armies. — 
WilHam the Silent 
was a tireless 
worker. But Alva, 
with his veteran 
Spanish soldiers, 
scattered, one by 
one, every army that 
the patriots could 
raise. In one battle 
the Spaniards lost but seven, while their opponents lost 
seven thousand men. The Spanish armies crushed all be- 
fore them, for William was no match for Alva as a general. 

Stamping Out Teutonic Liberty not Easy. — Still the 
prince would not own himself conquered. After a bitter 
defeat, he said, " With God's help I am determined to go 
on." Again armies were raised, and again Alva put them 
to rout. He wrote Phihp, saying, " We may regard the 
Prince of Orange as a dead man ; he has now neither in- 
fluence nor credit." 




Willi \\i the biLENT. 



334 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

Dark Days for Liberty. — Alva's armies marched up and 
down the land, capturing most of the towns, and putting 
many of the people to death. Everything looked dark 
to the Netherlanders. Thousands of Protestants fled for 
refuge to France, Germany, and England. 

The Sea Beggars. — The brave Hollanders now tried 
a new way of lighting. They began to build ships, and soon 
had eighteen vessels sailing about in search of the enemy. 
These Dutch vessels were manned with wild and lawless 
men, who hated the Spaniards bitterly. They were as 
cruel as Alva himself. The crews cared nothing for dangers, 
as long as there was plenty of fighting and rich booty. The 
Spaniards called them Sea Beggars. 

Philip's Match on the Sea. — In a year they had taken 
three hundred Spanish vessels and enormous booty. En- 
couraged by this, William of Orange built more ships, until 
the number had reached eighty-four. The crews spread 
terror everywhere, but Httle of the booty ever reached - 
Orange. The Sea Beggars sailed up and down the coast, 
seeking revenge for Alva's cruel deeds. 

The Sea Beggars' First Port. — Once a fleet was driven 
into the Meuse River by a storm. Finding the Spanish 
garrison of Brill off their guard, six hundred Sea Beggars 
marched in and took the city, pillaged the churches, and 
murdered the Catholic clergy and officials. Then they 
strengthened the walls, ran up the flag of Orange, and held 
the town, which became their first port. 

Dutch at Home Upon the Sea. — From this small begiri- 
ing, Holland was to grow into a great sea power. Alva 
tried again and again to retake Brill, but in vain. One 
port after another quickly fell into the hands of the Sea 
Beggars, and several whole provinces were retaken by them 
in the name of Wilham of Orange. 



THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 335 

Holland Holding Out. — Rich merchants now opened 
their purses to WilUam ; and there seemed hope of saving 
the northern provinces from the clutches of the victorious 
Alva. Prince William decided to give up the southern 
provinces, in which the people were largely Catholic, and 
to make his last stand for the low countries of Holland, 
where the Protestants were numerous and ready to put up 
the stoutest fight. This was a swampy land protected by 
dikes. 

The Fate of Holland. — One of WilHam's coast towns 
was Harlem. Alva resolved to take this, and the contest 
lasted for months with fighting night and day. Every time 
the Spaniards made an attack they were driven back with 
great loss. At last they surrounded the town and sat down 
to starve Harlem into surrender. So long as the shallow 
waters surrounding the town were covered with ice, swift 
skaters darted in during the dark, foggy nights with food. 
But when spring came, a Spanish fleet cut off approach by 
water. The starving people inside the town had eaten 
shoe leather and even weeds. At last they were forced 
to give up. The blood-thirsty Spaniards rushed in and 
butchered the weak and helpless survivors by the hundred. 

Still Defiant. — Philip now offered pardon to the stout- 
hearted Hollanders if they would lay down their arms and 
return to the Catholic faith. But they bitterly hated 
Philip, the man who had hanged, beheaded, burned, and 
buried ahve their innocent brethren. So they replied, 
" As long as there is a living man left in the country, we 
will fight for our Hberty and our rehgion." 

Attempt to Take Leyden. — Accordingly, a powerful 
Spanish army set out to capture Leyden, a city not many 
miles from the sea. They were beaten oflf by the brave 
defenders and again sat down to starve them out. William 



336 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

could not raise an army big enough to beat back the Span- 
iards, but he urged the brave Hollanders to hold out for 
three months, promising that he would save them from the 
clutches of the enemy. 

Facing Starvation. — Weeks passed by, and food became 
scarce in the town. They wrote Orange that they had kept 
their promise, they " had held out two months with food, 
and another month without food. Their malt cake would 




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last but four days ; and after that was gone there was 
nothing left but starvation. " 

The Only Hope. — Orange had but one resource left. 
That was to cut the dikes and send the ocean waves to 
fight the Spaniards. The people hesitated to surrender to 
the sea their crops and lands won by years of toil, but they 
at last agreed with Orange when he said, " Better a drowned 
land than a lost land." 

Cutting the Dikes. — Orange, therefore, cut the great 
dikes in sixteen places, and the ocean poured through. 
The Sea Beggars had two hundred ships of light draft, 
well-manned, ready to sail to the relief of Leyden, but the 



THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 337 

sea rose very slowly, as the wind was in the wrong direc- 
tion. The fleet had approached to within five miles of the 
city and lay there waiting for the water to rise. 

Starving for the Sake of Liberty. — A week passed and 
the starving citizens began to lose hope and to complain 
bitterly. Bread, malt cake, and horseflesh were all gone. 
They had eaten all the dogs, cats, and rats. A few cows 
were left, but they were needed for the milk. Each day 
some were killed, and small bits distributed among the 
starving people. The cowhides were chopped, boiled, and 
eaten eagerly. The green leaves were stripped from the 
trees for food. Men, wohien, and children were dying in 
great numbers, for a pestilence had come upon the unhappy 
city. 

Supreme Heroism. — The Spaniards taunted the brave 
people on the walls, but the plucky Hollanders shouted 
back : " Ye call us rat eaters and dog eaters, and it is true. 
So long, then, as ye hear dog bark or cat mew, ye may know 
that the city holds out. And when all have perished but 
ourselves, be sure that we wifl each devour our left arms, 
retaining our right to defend our women, our liberty, and 
our religion against the bloodthirsty Spaniard." 

The Unconquerable Van der Werf . — Some hopeless 
wretches gathered about the brave burgomaster Van der 
Werf, the commander of the town, and accused him of 
preferring to starve them rather than give up to the 
Spaniards. That hero replied : " Here is my sword, plunge 
it into my breast and divide my flesh among you to appease 
you*r hunger ; but expect no surrender so long as I shall 
remain alive." This shamed the faint-hearted citizens to 
obedience, and there was no more flinching. 

The Wind Changes. — Presently the wind changed and 
drove the sea waters over the land. The Dutch fleet with 



338 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

their beloved prince aboard sailed in among trees and farm 
buildings, defeated the Spaniards, and brought food to the 
suffering people of Ley den. Every man, who could stand, 
came out to meet the fleet, and bread was thrown from every 
vessel into the crowd. Some ate so eagerly that they 
choked to death. They gathered in their church where 
they sang, prayed, and wept Hke children. 

Leyden Rewarded by a University. — When William 
listened to the story of their glorious defense, he rejoiced 
exceedingly. Wishing to reward the heroic defenders of 
liberty, the prince offered to release the city from all taxes. 
But the Dutch were as wise as they were plucky. They 
said, " We prefer a university." Sometime later the 
prince founded 'the great University of Leyden in honor of 
this victory. In the course of time this became famous and 
drew scholars from all civilized lands to enjoy its advan- 
tages. 

Philip Hiring Assassins. — King Philip was now con- 
vinced that he could never conquer Holland as long as the 
wonderful patriot William was alive ; so he proclaimed 
him to all the world as a traitor, and offered twenty-five 
thousand crowns of gold to any one "who shall deliver this 
pest to us, dead or alive; or take his hfe." An assassin 
got access to WilKam's house and shot him as he went to 
dinner. The villain fell, pierced by many arrows, while 
William recovered. 

The Great Patriot Falls. — But another rufhan with 
murder in his heart secured permission to enter the house. 
He was in a wretched condition, so William sent him a 
present of twelve crowns. With this gift the scoundrel 
bought a pistol, watched his chance, and shot Wilham dead. 
All Holland mourned the death of their noble chief, and 
they buried him with great honors. 



THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 339 

A New Enemy of Spain. — William the Silent had done 
his work so well that the Dutch Repubhc, which he had 
founded, could not be overcome by Spain. Elizabeth, 
the Protestant queen of England, now offered aid to the 
brave little country of Holland. Philip, in anger, turned 
to conquer Englar^d ; after which he believed he could finish 
the destruction of liberty in Holland. 

QUESTIONS 

I. What country was the most loyal to the mother church? 
2. Why ? 3. Where did PhiHp of Spain get the kingship of Holland ? 
4. How did he try to stamp out the Protestant sects there ? 5. Who 
were the Beggars ? 6. Who was Alva and what kind of a fighter was 
he ? 7. Was he as good a man as he was a general ? 8. Tell about 
his plot. 9. What was the Council of Blood ? 10. Who was the 
great patriot of Holland? 11. Compare him with Alva as a fighter 
and as a man. 12. Tell about the Sea Beggars and what they did 
for Holland. 13. Tell about the fate of Harlem. 14. How 
was Leyden saved? 15. What became of William of Orange? 
16. What new enemy now arose against Spain ? 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
THE FALL OF SPAIN 

English Sea Rovers. — Among the English sea captains 
of those days were many bold and daring leaders. The 
sea swarmed with pirates, and even kings were willing to 
share the stolen plunder. Queen Elizabeth was eager to 
aid these sea dogs in taking trading vessels from the East 
Indies or Spanish treasure ships bearing cargoes of riches 
from the gold and silver mines of Mexico and Peru. 

Sir Francis Drake. — In 1585 Drake led a fleet of thirty 
vessels against the Spanish colonies. Other famous 
captains, Martin Frobisher and Richard, the son of John 
Hawkins, went with him. Their names were known and 
feared on every sea. They went about capturing and 
plundering, destroying what they could not carry away. 
Steering for the Spanish colonies in America, they seized 
scores of ships and burned many towns — among them St. 
Augustine with its two hundred and fifty houses. The 
next year they returned to England with immense booty, 
including vast sums of gold and silver. Such lawless deeds 
aroused Philip to the fighting point. 

Why Philip Hated England. — Philip had more reasons 
than one for making war upon England. He hated the 
island kingdom because she had broken away from the 
Catholic Church, as well as because Drake and other 
English sea rovers had captured so many Spanish treasure 
ships from America and the Indies. And, above all, Philip 
was furious because Queen Elizabeth had sent soldiers and 

340 



THE FALL OF SPAIN 



34] 



guns to help the Protestants of Holland against the Span- 
iards. 

His Plans. — Philip vowed that he would conquer the 
island of heretics, throw Elizabeth into prison, and make 
himself king in her place. Then he would restore the 
Catholic religion, both in England and Holland. 

The Great Armada. — Philip now resolved to gather all 
his troops and ships, and in one great Armada bear down 




Queen Elizabeth. 

upon England in overwhelming numbers. He counted his 
forces and found that he could get together 150 great ships 
of war — 360 smaller vessels and storeships, and 46 galleys 
— a total of 556 ships. This grand fleet, which he called 
" The Invincible Armada," would land his world-famous 
army of 94,000 men on the English coast and the war would 
soon be over. 



342 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

" Singeing the Spanish King's Beard." — But before the 
Armada was ready to sail, Drake was sent to prevent 
the fleets of Spain from joining forces. He sailed boldly 
into the Spanish harbor of Cadiz, sank forty or more ships 
of war, burned the shipyards and all seasoned lumber, and 
sailed away, towing four storeships well-filled with pro- 
visions. They called this " singeing the Spanish king's 
beard." After destroying scores of Spanish merchant ships, 
Drake sailed toward the Azores to await a Spanish trading 
fleet, which he heard was coming from the East Indies. 
He fell in with it and won an easy victory. Then he spread 
his sails for home, carrying booty of enormous value. 

The Armada Sails. — Drake had done such damage to 
the Spaniards that they were forced to postpone the time 
of setting sail. It was not until 1588 that the Armada was 
ready to put out to sea. Philip had launched a fleet of 
130 ships, carrying 8000 sailors and 14,000 soldiers. His 
ships were large, strong, and imposing ; and they out- 
numbered Elizabeth's fleet four to one. Moreover, Spain 
had long been the strongest nation in the world. Her 
generals were famous and her soldiers seasoned by years 
of service and many victories. 

The Armada in Trouble. — Philip ordered the Armada 
to sail first to Holland, taking on board the great Spanish 
armies there, and then to land them across the channel on 
English soil. No sooner had the Armada put out to sea 
than its troubles began. The great ships were built for 
fair weather and were made of poorly seasoned timber, for 
Drake had burned up their good lumber. So the vessels 
soon began to leak badly. The sailors were gathered largely 
from Mediterranean ships, and were not used to the stormy 
Atlantic. Their food was poor and most of it soon spoiled ; 
their bread became moldy and their meat putrid. Their 



THE FALL OF SPAIN 



343 



supply of water also ran short, and sickness soon broke out 
upon the crowded fleet. 

The English Fleet. — At last the Armada was sighted 
off the coast of England, where the httle fleet of Elizabeth 
was awaiting them. The English fleet was small, but much 
faster then the big ships of Spain. It was commanded by 
Lord Howard, a noted sea captain ; and with him were 
Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher, and many other daring cap- 




The Meeting of the English Ships with the Spanish Araiada. 

tains. The ships were manned by sailors trained in many 
sea battles. The English fleet was supplied with long- 
range cannon and good gunners ; while the Armada was 
crowded with soldiers whose only method of fighting was at 
close range. The big EngHsh guns fired four shots to the 
Spaniards' one. 

A Running Fight. — The fleets came together, and the 
little English ships darted in and out among the huge, 
awkward ships of Spain. They shot holes in Philip's 
big vessels, and captured the slower-sailing ones as well as 
those that were disabled and had to fall behind. The 



344 



DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 



Spanish admiral, being unable to grapple or to approach 
close enough to harm the EngUsh vessels, drew off and 
anchored in a harbor on the east side of the channel. The 
Enghsh ships followed, but dared not enter the port. They 
collected some big fire ships, and under a favorable breeze 
sent them blazing into the harbor among the scores of 




The Sovereign of the Seas. 



Philip's wooden vessels. The Spaniards, in great alarm, 
cut their cables and amidst much confusion tried to escape 
to the open sea. Many ships collided and were damaged, 
some were burned, and the entire Armada floated out at 
night. The ships became scattered, without an admiral to 
give orders. The nimble English vessels followed in close 
pursuit. In that running, nine days' fight up the channel, 
the Spaniards saw that fortune was against them. They 
cried out in despair, " God has forsaken us ! " 



THE FALL OF SPAIN 



345 



The English Have the Best of It. — Many of Philip's 
ships were sent to the bottom, some were driven ashore, 
and some were captured, as the Enghsh chased their big 
enemy into the stormy North Sea. The splendid Armada 
was badly scattered, and to escape the English, they fled 
to the northward. The British fleet had run short of pow- 
der and had to stop to restock the ships. Howard wrote to 
Queen Elizabeth, saying, '* Their force is wonderful and 
strong, and yet we pluck their feathers little by little." 

Returning Home. — The defeated Armada tried to sail 
around Scotland and Ireland and thus return to Spain, for 
they dreaded another meeting with Lord Howard's fleet, 
which was waiting for them to come back. The scattered 
fleet of Spain had neither pilots nor sea charts. Their ships 
were full of leaks and holes made by the English guns, and 
the weather was wild and stormy. Many of Philip's ships 
were wrecked off the coast of Scotland and Ireland, and 
their men and cargo were scattered along the shores. The 
Spanish soldiers and sailors died in great numbers of wounds, 
sickness, cold, and famine. 

Philip in Defeat. — Only a small part of the fleet ever 
reached home. Spain was ruined. Philip had taxed the 
land to the uttermost to fit out the wonderful Armada, and 
now despair and rage rang through the country. ' For days, 
Philip was found at prayer: " It is Thy cause, O Lord. If 
in Thy wisdom defeat is best, then Thy will be done! " 

Holland Takes Spain's Place. — Even after the defeat of 
the Armada, Spain kept up her fight against Holland until 
Phihp's death ; but it was a losing fight. During thirty 
years of continuous fighting, brave httle Holland had held 
her own with the strongest nation of Europe ; and her 
provinces had become the chief trading country of the 
world. The southern provinces, now known as Belgium, 



346 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

had been brought to their knees by the great Spanish armies, 
but many of the leading citizens of Antwerp, Bruges, and 
Ghent had gone to Holland and helped to build up the great 
commerce of that country. 

Holland Free; Protestantism Spared. — The people 
of Holland were, above all else, a sea-faring nation, and 
their trade grew marvelously. Their ships were on every 
sea. The Mediterranean, the White Sea, the East Indies, 
China, and the Amazon knew their trading vessels. When 
the fighting was ended in 1609, Holland was practically a 
free country, for Spain never renewed the attack. The 
Protestant rehgion was saved. 

The Moriscoes. — When Ferdinand and Isabella drove 
out the Moors from Spain, a considerable number of them, 
who had accepted Christianity, were permitted to remain 
in the country. These Moriscoes were the most skillful 
laborers of Spain. While the Spaniards had come to despise 
honest labor and to look upon war as the only honorable 
occupation, the Moriscoes were busy manufacturing silk 
and paper, cultivating sugar, rice, and cotton, and raising 
sheep. The riches of Spain in those days came from two 
sources: from the labor of the Moriscoes, and from the mines 
of America. 

The Utter Ruin of Spain. — The defeat of the Armada was 
a deathblow to Spanish leadership, but PhiHp's son has- 
tened the ruin of his kingdom by another stupendous 
blunder. The Spaniards had always been suspicious of 
the Moriscoes' faith, and the bigoted leaders of the Roman 
church in Spain now resolved to drive them from the 
country. Thus a million of the best workers and thinkers of 
Spain were exiled amid untold suffering and cruelty. The 
nation has never recovered from this stupid blunder. 
Madrid and Seville lost half of their population. The mines 



THE FALL OF SPAIN 347 

of America were soon exhausted, and Spain was now fallen 
very low. Instead of being the leading world power, she 
had become a land of beggers. Her control of the sea, her 
world-wide commerce, her vast possessions gradually fell 
into other hands. 

QUESTIONS 

I. Give three reasons why Philip made war on England. 2. What 
preparations did he make? 3. How was he hindered? 4. How did 
he plan for his men to go to England ? 5. What hardships did they 
suffer? 6. How was the whole plan spoiled? 7. What did it 
mean to Spain ? 8. What did it mean to England ? 



CHAPTER XXIX 

THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 

Dividing the World. — For almost fifty years after the 
voyages of Columbus the French nation took Httle interest 
in exploration, and during this time Spain and Portugal 
seized the newly found lands and the world's trade. Portu- 
gal had taken possession of the route to the East by way 
of the Cape of Good Hope, while Spain claimed all lands 
discovered to the west and southwest. In order to prevent 
trouble between Portugal and Spain, the pope had divided 
between these powers all the new lands that might be dis- 
covered. A line was drawn across the map from pole to 
pole, two hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape 
Verde Islands. All new lands discovered east of this line 
were to belong to Portugal ; those west of it to Spain. 

France Wants a Share. — The king of France saw no 
good reason for allowing Spain and Portugal to divide the 
world between them. He began to wish for a share of these 
newly found lands, where mines of gold and silver, like 
those that the Spaniards had found in South America and 
Mexico, might be discovered. Moreover, no one had yet 
found a short route to China. Perhaps there might.be a 
northwest passage ; and, if such were true, it would bring 
riches to whatever nation first took possession of it. 

Cartier. — In 1534, a Frenchman, named Jacques Cartier, 
started in search of a northwest route to China. He steered 
for Newfoundland, which was then pretty well known in 
France through the hardy French fishermen who had made 

348 



THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 



349 



many voyages to these waters for codfish. After reaching 
America and exploring many bays and islands, Cartier at 
last entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which seemed to 
promise a passage to the western ocean. But as autumn, 
with its stormy weather, 
was approaching, Car- 
tier resolved to go home 
and return the next year. 
So he turned his prows 
eastward and bore away 
for France, carrying 
with him two Indians 
whom he had kid- 
napped. 

A Second Trip. — The 
next year, Cartier with 
three ships spread sail 
for Newfoundland, and 
on St. Lawrence's day 
entered the bay, which cartier. 

he named St. Lawrence. He fondly hoped that this was 
the long-sought passage. But the farther up he sailed the 
narrower he found the bay and the fresher the water, until 
he knew that it was only a great river. 

Montreal. — Sailing up the St. Lawrence River, he passed 
by the rocky height where Quebec now stands, and came 
to an Indian village on the present site of Montreal. Be- 
hind the village was a hill, high enough to give Cartier a 
splendid view of the surrounding country. He called the 
hill Mont Real, or the Royal Mountain. 

A Hard Winter. — Winter came on with its extreme 
cold — a real Canadian winter. The shores and the great 
river were frozen solid and covered with snow, which 




350 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

drifted high about the ice-bound ships and the fort that the 
French had built. The Indians were friendly for a time, 
but the scurvy broke out among Cartier's men and many 
died. Sometimes, it is said, only three or four were well 
enough to care for the sick. Being unable to bury their 
dead on account of the frozen ground, they hid them in 
snowdrifts. They feared that the Indians might hear of 
their pHght and massacre those that the scurvy had spared, 
so they refused them the privilege of approaching the fort. 

The Indian's Cure. — One day Cartier saw an Indian who 
had just recovered from the scurvy. He inquired what 
medicine he had used. The Indian told him of a drink 
made from evergreen leaves. The Frenchmen drank it 
eagerly and were soon on the road to health. 

Headed for France. — When spring came and the ships 
were thawed loose from their moorings, Cartier made ready 
to return to France. By shameless treachery he seized a 
chief and eleven Indians who seemed to know most of the 
country farther inland and spread his sails for home. 

Canada for France. — Cartier came a third time. He 
spent some weeks exploring, but went home after planting 
the French flag in Canada and taking possession of New 
France, as he called it. It has been said that the only ad- 
vantages the country offered were a " bitter cHmate, a 
savage people, a fatal disease, and a soil barren of gold." 

Profits in Fur Trade. — The French fishermen, who had, 
for many summers, visited the banks of Newfoundland 
for codfish, soon saw greater riches in fur trade with the 
Indians. Many of them cast away their nets and journeyed 
through the deep forests in quest of the more profitable 
bear skins and beaver skins. 

The First Settlement. — It was many years later, how- 
ever, before the French undertook to make permanent 



THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 



351 



settlements in Canada. The fur trade had grown and 
become valuable. At last came one of the greatest and 
noblest Frenchmen of those times 
— Samuel de Champlain, who in 
1608 made a settlement at Quebec, 
and became the founder of Canada. 
Champlain's Plans. — Champlain 
wished to carve out a grand empire 
in America for the French king. 
His plan was to explore the coun- 
try and to make friends with the 
Indians — all the while building up 
a profitable trade with them. At 
the same time missionaries were to 
teach the red men and to lead them into the Cathohc faith. 
Thus the fur trader and the black-robed Jesuit priest set 
out through the forests together. It was also part of 





Quebec in the- Early Days. 



Champlain's plan to establish strong military posts, or 
forts, at well-chosen places. 

Champlain and the Iroquois. — In order to cement a firm 
friendship with the Algonquin Indians of the St. Lawrence 



352 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

valley, Champlain agreed to help them in a war with their 
bitter enemies, the Iroquois. Near the banks of the beauti- 
ful lake that bears his name, Champlain led his Indian 
friends in a battle against the Iroquois. The crack of the 
muskets as the French sharpshooters picked off their chiefs, 
frightened the Iroquois warriors. Being afraid to fight 
against men who used thunder and lightning, they fled to- 
ward home. This battle established a firm friendship with 
the Algonquins, but it made the Iroquois, who were the 
strongest Indian confederacy in America, the everlasting 
enemies of the French. In after years they did great harm 
to the followers of Champlain, by cutting off their fur trade 
or by surprising and capturing their forts. The Iroquois, 
by preventing the French from pushing south into their 
country — now the state of New York — forced them west- 
ward into the Great Lake region. 

La Salle's Gift to France. — Following in the footsteps 
of the founder of Canada, came the man of the iron will, 
Cavelier de La Salle, who was to extend and complete the 
work begun by Champlain. La Salle, with his wonderful 
determination, explored the region of the western lakes 
and the great valley of the Mississippi, and planted there 
the French flag. Thus he gave to his king a vast empire 
stretching westward from the crest of the AUeghanies to the 
unknown Rockies. 

Making Friends of the Indians. — One of the chief rea- 
sons for the success of the French was their ability to win 
and to hold the good will of the Indians. No other Eu- 
ropeans knew so well how to make firm aUies of the red men. 
The French traders and trappers learned the Indian lan- 
guage ; they dressed hke Indians, often painting their faces 
and joining in their war dances. Some took Indian wives 
and came at last to live much as did these children of the 



THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 



353 




354 DAWN OF AMERICAN fflSTORY IN EUROPE 




French Explorations. 



THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 355 

forest. They made long voyages in canoes and learned to 
endure the adventure and hardship of savage hfe. 

Weakness of the French. — But while the French had 
won the friendship of many Indian tribes, and had taken 
possession of such a large territory in the fairest portion of 
North America, they had made but few settlements. 
Their chief object being the fur trade instead of a desire to 
settle and till the soil, they had spread themselves out thinly 
over wide regions. Being so scattered, they were widely 
exposed to attack, when the EngHsh crossed swords with 
them some years later. 

QUESTIONS 

I. What had aroused French interest in America? 2. What men 
explored for her? 3. What territory did they claim? 4. Settle- 
ments? 5. How did they try to hold their territory? 6. What 
were their relations with the Indians ? 7. What where their in- 
dustries ? 8. What was their religion ? 9. How did their govern- 
ment differ from that in the English colonies? 10. Which country 
has the strongest hold in America? 11. Why? 12. From the 
standpoint of progress, which nation would make the most of America? 
13. Why? 



CHAPTER XXX 

THE DUTCH AT NEW AMSTERDAM 

Seizing the World's Trade. — After the defeat of the 
Armada, England and Holland soon became the leading 
powers upon the sea. The Dutch ships spread their sails 
for the East Indies, and before many years they had seized 
upon Java, Sumatra, the Molucca Islands, and other valu- 
able possessions of Portugal and Spain. All this rich trade 
fell into the hands of Holland. It was the Dutch who 
introduced into Europe the use of coffee and tea. They 
established a colony at the Cape of Good Plope ; they dis- 
covered the far-off continent of Australia in 1605 and named 
it New Holland, a name that it bore for a long time. Tas- 
mania and New Zealand were visited, and the Dutch flag 
was seen on every sea. 

A Northeast Route to China. — The Dutch merchants 
were especially anxious to find a shorter route to China 
and Japan, since it took many months for their slow-sailing 
vessels to creep around Africa to those distant ports. 
Some people hoped that there might be found a northeast 
passage around the northern coast of Europe and Asia. 
The Dutch East Indian Company sent Henry Hudson, a 
noted English navigator, to find it for them. 

Henry Hudson. — Hudson spread sail for the frozen 
north. He met with so many icebergs that he feared that 
his ship might be caught and crushed, so he gave up the 
attempt. Instead of returning home, as he was ordered 
to do in case he failed, Hudson turned his prows for the 

356 



THE DUTCH AT NEW AMSTERDAM 



357 



west and crossed the Atlantic in search of a northwest 

route to China. He sailed down along the coast of New 

England, and in September, 1609, the Half Moon entered 

the beautiful river that bears his name. He sailed up the 

Hudson as far 

as the present 

site of Albany, 

trading with the 

Indians and 

admiring the 

scenery of the 

country. He 

declared that it 

was " as fair a 

land as was ever 

trodden by the 

foot of man." 

New Amster- 
dam Settled. — 
During the next 
few years, other 
Dutch vessels 
came to the 
Hudson, bring- 
ing blue glass 
beads and strips 
of red cotton 
cloth to exchange for the valuable skins of beaver, otter, 
and mink. By 1613 the Dutch had built four rude huts on 
Manhattan Island, where the great city of New York now 
stands. It mattered not to the thrifty Dutch merchants 
that they were settling upon land claimed by England. 
They named the cluster of huts New Amsterdam; they 




The Half Moon on the Hudson. 



358 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

built forts to protect their new country ; and they made a 
treaty of friendship with the Iroquois, who were glad of 
the chance to buy muskets with which to take vengeance 
upon the French for the defeat at Lake Champlain a few 
years before. Thus the Dutch had seized upon the finest 
harbor on the eastern coast and the gateway into the 




The Dutch in New Amsterdam. 

interior, since the Hudson furnished an easy passage for 
inland trafhc in furs. 

Helping to Build Our Nation. — The Dutch were close 
kin of the Angles and Saxons and were, perhaps, the purest 
Teutonic stock among the early settlers of America. The 
Dutch were industrious and thrifty. They were shrewd 
in money matters and skilled in driving bargains. Their 
city quickly took the lead in trade and wealth in America, 
and it has held the first place to this day. They brought 
to America that love of Hberty and freedom of worship 



THE DUTCH AT NEW AMSTERDAM 359 

that they had gained in Holland. Thousands of this sturdy 
people came early to our shores, and they have helped 
greatly in making our country what it is to-day. 

QUESTIONS 

I. What becomes of Spain's possessions in the East after the de- 
feat of the Armada ? 2. What new routes to the East did Holland 
explore? 3. What was the result? 4. TeU about Hudson's 
voyage. 5. Tell about New Amsterdam. 6. What ideas of govern- 
ment and religion did the Dutch bring to New Amsterdam ? 7. How 
did the Dutch differ from the EngUsh in these matters ? 



CHAPTER XXXI 
THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA 

Frobisher and the Short-cut to China. — So anxious were 
the nations of Europe to find a short route to China that 
EngHsh sailors also entered into the search. Among those 
who set out to find a northwest passage through North 
America was Martin Frobisher. The man who found 
this short-cut, Frobisher thought, would become both rich 
and famous, for he believed it was the only great thing in 
the world left to do. 

His Voyage. — Frobisher was too poor to fit out an expe- 
dition himself, and it was a long time before he could find 
a wealthy or powerful friend to aid him. At last the friend 
was found ; and as Frobisher sailed down the Thames with 
three little ships (1576), Queen Elizabeth waved a friendly 
farewell. One of the vessels went down in a storm at sea, 
while the crew of another became frightened and turned 
their prows toward home. But Frobisher sailed fearlessly 
on. He landed somewhere north of Labrador, and took 
possession of the country for Elizabeth. In spite of his 
perseverance, Frobisher failed to find the passage to China. 
He carried home an Indian and some worthless stones 
which he believed to contain gold ; but his voyage was a 
failure. 

Drake Sailing Around the World. — Meanwhile Francis 
Drake (1577-1580) sailed around the end of South America 
and up along the west coast, plundering Spanish settle- 
ments and taking their ships laden with immense treasures 

360 



THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA 361 



of gold and silver ore. Drake explored the west coast of 
what is now the United States as far as Oregon, and sailed 
for home by way of Asia and the Indian Ocean. 

Such voyages fired men's minds with dreams of gold and 
boundless plunder, but they did not encourage any one to 
settle and build up trading colonies in America. 

Trying to Found a Colony. — Sir Humphrey Gilbert 
and his half brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, made up their 
minds to plant an Eng- 
Hsh colony in America. 
They beheved that col- 
onies would pay better 
than the aimless search- 
ing for gold, for they 
would open up trade with 
the Indians, and develop 
agriculture in America; 
and above all, the colo- 
nies would be a fine mar- 
ket for English goods. 
So they obtained from 
Elizabeth a grant of land, 
and the right for their 
colony to rule itself. 
With a fleet, fitted out largely at their own expense, they 
set out for the New World. One ship was lost at sea. 
After fighting a battle with the Spaniards they returned 
to England without success. A second attempt also failed, 
and Sir Humphrey's tiny ship went down at sea. 

Raleigh's Lost Colony. — Sir Walter Raleigh, who had 
not sailed on the second trip, had now risen to great favor 
with Queen Elizabeth. He was not the man to give up 
easily, and his heart was set upon planting a colony in 




Sir Walter Raleigh. 



362 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

America. At great expense, he sent several expeditions 
to found a settlement. A little company of about a hun- 
dred men and women was landed on Roanoke Island on 
the coast of what we now call North Carolina. The colony 
was short of food, and soon were forced to send their only 
ship home to England, hoping for a speedy return. But 




The Lost Colony. 



these were the days of the Armada, and all the strength 
and effort of Englishmen were being put forth to sink the 
great Spanish fleet. Thus the Httle colony was neglected, 
and when a few years later a tardy ship came to Roanoke, 
with food and supplies, the settlers had disappeared. 
What became of them nobody knows. 

Pointing the Way. — • Sir Walter had now spent a fortune 
of nearly a million dollars, trying to start an EngHsh nation 



THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA 363 



in America, and had failed. He concluded that the cost 
of such an undertaking was greater than one man could 
bear. So he turned his charter over to a trading company 
of London merchants. Raleigh had failed, but he had 
pointed out the way and had shown what the difficulties 
were. Now that the Spaniards were driven from the sea, 
and suppUes could be safely sent from home, the way was 
clear to plant EngHsh colonies in 
the New World and to protect 
them there. 

The London Company. — The 
London Company fitted out a 
little fleet, under Captain New- 
port, and started it for Virginia, 
bearing about a hundred colo- 
nists (1606). The voyage was a 
long one, and their provisions 
were nearly used up before they 
arrived. There was trouble 
among the men; and before 
America was reached, they had 
arrested and bound in chains a certain John Smith, who 
later proved to be the wisest of them all. 

Jamestown Founded. — The ships entered Chesapeake 
bay and sailed up a river, which they named the James 
in honor of the King. After fighting with one Indian tribe 
and smoking the pipe of peace with another, the company 
landed and decided to build their settlement upon a penin- 
sula, which they called Jamestown, about fifty miles up the 
river. 

The Outlook Dark. — The site for their settlement was 
not wisely chosen, for it was low and swampy and might 
breed disease. However, axes were soon busy felHng forest 




John Smith. 



364 DAWN OF AMERICAN m STORY IN EUROPE 

trees to build homes and a fort. But the workers were 
few. There were only four carpenters and twelve laborers, 
while half of the entire company were " gentlemen " who 
were unused to work and who expected to fill their pockets 



dHU 


fc 






zS^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^BtSx^i.'^ 


;- 


.-■ - 


'--A 




vJm 







The RriNS of Jamesto\vn. 

with gold quickly and return to England. The ship soon 
sailed back home, leaving the colony short of supplies. 
John Smith saved the settlers from starving by making a 
rule that he who would not work should not eat. The colony 
became the first permanent English settlement in America. 



QUESTIONS 

I. Tell about Frobisher's voyage and its results. 2. Who was 
Drake and what great voyage did he make? 3. Tell about Sir 
Humphrey Gilbert. 4. What was the "Lost Colony"? 5. Why 
was it lost ? 6. Who was John Smith and what did he accomplish ? 
7. What do you think would have happened to the Jamestown colony 
without Smith ? 



CHAPTER XXXII 
CONCLUSION 

Spain's Outlook in America. — The Spanish were earUest 
upon our shores, but they wasted their time and resources 
in wild searches for gold, until they lost control of the sea. 
They did not know the importance of honest labor, and they 
had killed or driven from Spain all their best people. They 
made it a crime for a man to think for himself either in 
politics or religion. Every prosperous nation must have 
/workers and thinkers, but Spain had neither. The Spanish 
rulers and nobles claimed to have Teutonic blood in their 
veins, but they had lost the spirit of liberty and all other 
virtues of the Teutons. Since they ruined their own coun- 
try, they deserved to fail in the struggle for possession of 
America. 

The French as Builders. — The French had seized the 
two gateways to North America by taking hold of the St. 
Lawrence and the Mississippi. They held the best por- 
tions of the continent, and had secured the friendship of 
all the Indian tribes save the Iroquois. But they had 
scattered widely in search of furs instead of settling down to 
industrious labor and home-making. Since they were gov- 
erned at home by an absolute king, the colonists had no 
freedom or voice in their laws. The governors of Canada 
were chosen in Paris, and there, too, the laws were made ; 
so there was no inducement for men of strong mind and 
heart to settle in Canada. France, like Spain, robbed 
herself of her best workers and thinkers, when the Catholic 
king persecuted and drove away the Huguenots. 

365 



366 DAWN OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN EUROPE 

The French have much more of the Teutonic blood than 
the Spaniards, but at the time of settUng America, they 
had strayed far from the spirit of their Teutonic forefathers. 
They put up a stout fight for the possession of our country, 
but we shall see them fail before the EngUsh, who were 
best fitted to build up a great nation in America. 

The Dutch Prefer English Liberty. — The Dutch at 
New Amsterdam became dissatisfied with the liberties 
allowed them. They saw the people of New England en- 
joying great freedom and shaping their own affairs ; and 
when the opportunity came, the Dutch were glad to be- 
come an English colony, and New Amsterdam was renamed 
New York. 

The Coming of the English. — The English were late 
in getting a foothold upon our shores. The French had 
seized upon the St. Lawrence, the Great Lake region, and 
the vast Mississippi valley. The Spanish were intrenched 
in Florida. Thus the English were confined to the narrow 
Atlantic coast plains. The EngHsh knew best how to 
plant colonies, so it was not long before their settlements 
were scattered along the coast from Maine to Florida. It 
was fortunate that they were hemmed in as they were, for 
they settled more thickly and became strong and self- 
reHant. They were not drawn away from tilhng the soil 
by trailing through the forests for furs, as did the French, 
nor by searching for gold, Hke the Spanish. In order to 
clear the forests and raise crops, the Enghsh drove away 
the Indians. They brought with them their wives and 
famiUes, for they meant to build permanent homes here. 
They brought also their ideas of freedom, of having a voice 
in their own affairs, and of choosing their own religion. 
Thus the English were laying a good foundation for a free, 
happy, and prosperous colonial empire. America was 



CONCLUSION 367 

destined for the nation who knew best how to settle the 
wilderness, to build it up, and to rule over it; and 
that nation proved to be the Teutonic Anglo-Saxons. 

QUESTIONS 

Review 

I. Locate the territory claimed by Spain, England, France, Holland. 

2. Locate the settlements made by Spain, England, France, Holland. 

3. Tell about the government in the settlements of Spain, England, 
France, Holland. 4. Tell about .the religion in the settlements of 
Spain, England, France, Holland. 5. Why will Spain fail to get 
control of all North America? 6. Why will France fail? 7. Why 
will England become the controlling nation over here ? 8. Then 
what ideas of government will become established ? 9. What wiU 
keep America from ever becoming rea//y a part of England ? 10. What 
will be the religion of America? 11. What will be the govern- 
ment of America ? 12. Trace the Teutonic characteristics in America. 
13. Show how it is a land for all people. 



INDEX 



Abbey, 89, 90, 91. 

Abbot, 88. 

Acre, 213. 

/Etius, 98, 99. 

Africa, 271, 278. 

Alaric, 62-66. 

Alexandria, 44. 

Alexis, Emperor, 205. 

Alfred, the Great, 123-132. 

Alps, Hannibal crosses, 23. 

Alva, Duke of, 321-329. 

America, 2, 301 ; discovery of, 292. 

Americus Vespuccius, 298, 299. 

Amsterdam, New, 356. 

Angles, 101-115. 

Anglo-Saxon, 109, 116-132. 

Antioch, 212, 213. 

Appian Way, 72, 73. 

Apprentice, 180. 

Aqueducts, 45. 

Arabia, 226. 

Arabic numerals, 196, 197. 

Arabs, 188-199, 202. 

Aragon, 258-263. 

Arches, Roman, 36, 41. 

Arena, 47, 48. 

Armada, The Invincible, 341-345. 

Asia Minor, 27. 

Athens, 44, 57, 58. 

Augustine, 108. 

.\ugustine, St., 317. 

.Augustus, Caesar, 3, 27. 

Australia, 2. 

.Austria, 27. 

Azores, 276. 

Bacon, Roger, 226. 

Bahamas, 293. 

Balboa, 309, 310. 

Baltic Sea, 5, 11-12. 

Banquets, 155-156. 

Barbarians, German, i, 80. 

Barbarossa, Frederick, 222. 

Baths, Roman, 44. 

Beggars of the Sea, 329, 330, 334. 



Belgium, 136, 345, 346. 

Benedict, St., 87, 88. 

Bertha, Queen, 108. 

Bishop, Roman, 79-81. 

Block books, 323, 324. 

Books, ancient (manuscript), Roman, 42, 

92, 93- 
Borneo, 268. 
Brazil, 299. 
Brill, 334. 
Britons, 26. 
Bulgaria, 208. 
Burgundians, 70, 77. 

Cabot, John, 297, 298. 

Cabot, Sebastian, 297, 298. 

Caesar, Julius, 5, 26, 27. 

Caesar Augustus, 2, 27. 

Calicut, 226, 268. 

California, 281. 

CaUfs, 191. 

Canary Islands, 276, 287, 288. 

Canterbury, 122, 225. 

Cape of Good Hope, 277, 283, 2S4, 305. 

Capetian, 232. 

Cape Verde Islands, 283. 

Carthage, 21-23. 

Cartier Jacques, 348-350. 

Castile, 258-263. 

Castles, 147-161. 

Cathay (China), 225, 226, 264, 266, 275, 

305- 
Catholic Church, 318-327. 
Charlemagne, 135-138. 
Charles the Fat, 94. 
China (Cathay), 225, 226, 264, 266, 275, 

305- 
Chippenham, 127. 
Chivalry, 161. 

Christianity, 34 ; persecution of, 34-36. 
Church, Christian, 66, 77-80. 
Cicero, 52. 
Cipango, see Japan. 
Circus, The Great, 46. 
City of Seven Hills (Rome), 21. 

369 



370 



INDEX 



Clergy, 230. 

Clerics, 172. 

Clermont, Council of, 205. 

Clovis, 134, 135. 

Coliseum, 48, 49. 

Columbus, Bartholomew, 2, 278-283, 

284. 
Columbus, Christopher, 278-296. 
Combat, 160. 
Commerce, 94, 166, 174-186; British, 

102 ; with East, 265. 
Compass, 225, 273, 289, 290. 
Conrad III, Emperor, 221. 
Constantine, 36, 37, 59, 60. 
Constantinople, 59, 60, 66, 209. 
Cordova, 193-195, 253, 283, 284. 
Cortes, 257. 

Cortez, Hernando, 307-309. 
Council of Blood, 332. 
Crafts, 179. 
Criminals, 171. 
Crossbow, 226. 
Crusades, 154, 201-231. 

Da Gama, Vasco, 295, 296, 299, 300. 

Danegeld, 244. 

Danes, 94, 116— 132. 

Danube River, 28, 58, 60. 

Dark Ages, 75, 144. 

Denmark, 103. 

De Soto, Ferdinand, 314-316. 

Diaz, Bartholomew, 277. 

Domesday Book, 244. 

Donjon, 149. 

Drake, Sir Francis, 360, 361. 

Dutch, I. 

Edward the Saint (Confessor), 240. 

Egypt, 27, 192, 269. 

Elizabeth, Queen, 340, 360, 361. 

Emperor, Roman, 77. 

England, 271, 297. 

Erasmus, 322-323. 

Euphrates River, 24, 28. 

Fairs, 1S5, 186. 

Falcon, 158. 

Farming, German, 9; in Middle Ages, 

165, 166. 
Ferdinand, King, 258-263, 283-286. 
Feud, Blood, 83. 
Feudalism, 139-145, 242. 
Fief, 141. 



Fines, 83, 84. 

Florida, 314. 

Folkmoot, 120. • 

France, 27, 136, 232-238. 

Franks, 134-138. 

French language, 82, 83. 

Frobisher, Martin, 340, 358-360. 

Gaiseric, 68. 

Gama, Vasco da, 295, 296, 299, 300. 

Gaul, 26, 70. 

Gauls, 135. 

Genoa, 265, 279, 295. 

Germans (Teutons), 1-19, 136; arms, 
15; Christianized, 16; commerce, 16; 
dress, 6; good qualities of, 19 ; govern- 
ment of, 10; language, 324; priests, 
12; religion, 11-12; sacred grove, 11; 
warriors, 12-16; women, 6, lo-ii. 

Gibbon, the historian, 34. 

Gibraltar, 68. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 46-49. 

Godfrey at Jerusalem 211-223. 

Gold Coast, 276. 

Good Hope, Cape of, 277, 283, 284, 305. 

Goths, 53, 57-75. 77- 135. 193. 222; 
accept Christianity, 59. 

Granada, 260-263, 286. 

Great Charter, 247, 248. 

Greece, 24, 27, 62. 

Greek, art, 24, 191-192 ; language, 44, 
74. 322, 323. 

Gregory, 107. 

Guilds, 179-184. 

Guinea, Gulf of, 276, 280, 281. 

Gunpowder, 161, 226. 

Gutenberg, John, 324. 

Guthrum, 127, 128. 

Hannibal, 22-23. 

Harlem, 335. 

Harold, King of England, 240. 

Hastings, Battle of, 241. 

Hawking, 156-158. 

Hawkins, Sir John, 340. 

Hengist and Horsa, loi. 

Henry II of England, 234. 

Henry VII of England, 297. 

Henry, Prince, the Navigator, 271-279. 

Heretics, 259, 323. 

Holiday, 46, 47. 

Holland, 346. 

Holy Land, 154. 



INDEX 



371 



House of Commons, 251. 
House of Lords, 251. 
Howard, Lord, 343-345. , 

Hudson, Henry, 356-358. 
Huns, 57. 

Inca, 312-314. 

Indian Ocean, 267. 

Indians, American, 2. 

Inquisition, Spanish, 259-260, 323. 

Iron, 7. 

Isabella, Queen, 257-263, 283-286. 

Italian language, 82, 83. 

Italy, 27. 

Jackstaff, 273. 

Japan, 264, 275. 

Jerusalem, 154, iqi, 2or. 

Jesuits, 327, 351. 

Jews, 193. 

John, King of England, 234. 

John, King of Portugal, 277, 282, 283. 

Joppa, 213. 

Jury, Trial by, 247. 

Jutes, 102. 

King, power of, 229, 230. 
Knights, 152-161, 206-231. 
Koran, 189, 190. 

Labrador, 297. 

La Salle, 352-355- 

Latin language, 74, 81, 82. 

Latitude, 273. 

Law, Barbarian, 83, 84 ; Roman, 85 ; 

Teutonic, 84. 
Leo III, Pope, 136, 137. 
Leyden, 335, 338. 
Lisbon, 279, 294. 
Lombards, 70, 77. 

London, 104, 128, 295; Company, 363. 
Louis the Fighter, 233, 234. 
Louis VII of France, 221. 
Luther, Martin, 325, 326. 

Magellan, Ferdinand, 300-305 ; Straits 

of, 302. 
Magna Carta (Great Charter), 247, 248. 
• Manendez, Pedro, 316, 317. 
Manor, 163. 

Manuscript books (ancient), 92, 93. 
Marco Polo, 226, 264—269, 275. 
Mark, 7. 



Markets, 185, 186. 

Master workmen, 180. 

Mecca, 1 88-1 91. 

Mediterranean, 21, 58, 224. 

Merchants of the Middle Ages, 183-186. 

Mexico, 282, 308, 309. 

Migration, German, 9. 

Mississippi River, 316. 

Model Parliament, 250. 

Mohammed, 187-190. 

Mohammedans, 188-199. 

Moluccas (Spice Islands), 268, 275, 305. 

Monasteries, 87-97, io9) 122. 

Money, 176-177. 

Monks, 87-97. 

Montezuma, King of the Aztecs, 308, 

309- 
Montreal, 349, 350. 
Moors, 188-199, 222, 253-263. 
Moriscoes, 346. 
Mosaics, 68. 
Mosul, 226. 
Mount of Olives, 214, 217. 

Nero, 36, 49, 54. 

Nerthus, 11-12. 

Netherlands, 136, 329—347. 

Newfoundland, 297. 

New France, 350. 

New Testament, 109. 

Nicea, 210, 212. 

Noble, 141-145. 

Normandy, 233, 239. 

Northmen (Vikings), 94, 139, 140, 232 

North Star, 273. 

Norway, 1. 

Nunneries, 87. 

Odin, II, 66, 99, 106, 108. 
Omar, 191. 
Orinoco River, 295. 

Pacific Ocean, 310. 
Page, training of a, 150. 
Palos, 284, 287, 294. 
Panama, 311. 
Papyrus, 42. 
Paris, 232, 295. 
ParUament, 251. 
Peking, 297. 
Perez, 284. 
Persia, 226. 
Persian gulf, 269. 



372 



INDEX 



Peru, 312-314. 

Peter the Hermit, 203-210. 

Petrarch, 321, 322. 

Philip Augustus, 234. 

Philip II of France, 222. 

Philip II of Spain, 329-347. 

Picts, 98. 

Pilgrims, 201-205. 

Pizarro, 310-314. 

Polo, Marco, 226, 264-269, 275. 

Pompey, 25-26. 

Ponce de Leon, 313, 314. 

Pope, the Bishop of Rome, 318-325. 

Portugal, 279. 

Portuguese, 82, 83, 271-278. 

Printing, invention of, 324. 

Protestantism, 318-327. 

Pyrenees, 193. 

Quebec, 351. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 361-363. 

Red Sea, 269. 

Revival of Learning, 322-327. 

Rhine River, 3, 28, 67, 70. 

Richard the Lion-hearted, 222. 

Roads, Roman, 29. 

Robber barons, 175. 

Roderick, 253. 

Rolf (Rollo), 239- 

Roman, amphitheaters, 46-50 ; archi- 
tecture, 39-41 ; art, 39-41 ; books, 42 ; 
cities, 32-34; commerce, 32; educa- 
tion, 43; irrigation, 32; law, 85, 237; 
learning, 39-41 ; monuments, 41 ; 
mosaics, 40, 41 ; roads, 29 ; wall, 
28, 29. 

Romans, 2. 

Rome, 3, 4, 21-37, 44; becomes Chris- 
tian, 36, 37 ; fall of, 62-75. 

Sahara, 28, 264. 

St. Augustine, 317. 

St. Benedict, 87, 88. 

St. Louis, King of France, 233, 234. 

St. Peter's, 136. 

Sanitation in Middle Ages, 170, 171. 

Saracens, 201-231. 

Sargasso Sea, 290. 

Saxons (English), 98-115, 135, 136. 

Schools, Monastic, 92 ; moorish, 196. 

Scotland, 271. 

Scots, 98. 



Sea, Black, 58; Mediterranean, 21, 58, 
224; North, 99; of Darkness, 264, 
269, 288. 

Serfs (villains), 112, 172, 230. 

Seville, 284. 

Ships, Roman, 21-22; Carthaginian, 
21-22. 

Simon, Bishop of Jerusalem, 203. 

Simon de Montfort, 249, 250. 

Slaves, Teutons, 66; trade, 167; Ger- 
man, 6; Roman, 45, 50-52. 

Smith, John, 363, 364. 

Soldiers, German, 52, 53. 

South Africa, 2. 

Spain, 27, 67, 253-263 ; language, 82, 
83. 

Spaniards in America, 306-317. 

Spice Islands (Moluccas), 268, 275, 
305- 

Squire, training of, 150, 151. 

Stilicho, 64. 

Suevi, 70. 

Sumatra, 267. 

Sweden, i. 

Switzerland, 27. 

.Sylvester, Pope, 320. 

Syria, 27, 213, 226. 

Taxes, Roman, 54 ; monastic, 96. 

Teutons, sec Germans, 1-19, 76. 

Thames River, 126, 127. 

Third estate, 229. 

Thor, 106, 108. 

Tiber River, 21, 72. 

Tolls, 141, 175, 176. 

Toscanelli, 281, 288. 

Totilo, 94. 

Tournament, 158. 

Towns in the Middle Ages, 177. 

Truce of God, 145. 

Turkey, 27. 

Turks, 201-231. 

Tyre, 213. 

Urban II, Pope, 203-207. 

Varus, 3. 

Vandals, 68-70. 

Van der Werf, 337. 

Vassals, 141-145. 

Vatican, 319. 

Venice, 265, 267, 268. 

Vespuccius, Americus, 298, 299. 



INDEX 



373 



Vikings (Northmen), 04, 116-132. 
Villains (serfs), 112, 172, 230. 
Villas, Roman, 70, 106. 
Vortigern, 200. 

Walter the Penniless, 208-211. 
Wedmore, Treaty of, 127. 
Welsh, 103. 



Wessex, 114, 122. 

West Indies, 281. 

William the Conqueror, 239-245. 

William the Silent, Prince of Orange, 

332-338. 
Witan, 114. 

Yoke of Rome, 3. 



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